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Demographics of Sarawak - Wikipedia

Demographics of Sarawak - Wikipedia

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1Ethnic groups of Sarawak

Toggle Ethnic groups of Sarawak subsection

1.1Maps

2Dayak people

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2.1Iban

2.2Bidayuh

2.2.1Salako & Lara

3Orang Ulu

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3.1Kayan

3.2Lun Bawang

3.3Kelabit

3.4Kenyah

3.5Penan

3.6Punan Bah

3.7Sebop

3.8Tagal

4Bisaya

5Melanau

6Malay

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6.1Sarawakian Malay

6.2Kedayan

6.3Javanese

6.4Bugis

7Indian/South Asian

8Eurasian

9Sinitic people

10Religions of Sarawak

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10.1Christianity

10.2Islam

10.3Buddhism/Taoism

10.4Hinduism

10.5Sikhism

10.6Baháʼí Faith

10.7Animism

11See also

12References

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Demographics of Sarawak

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Historical populationYearPop.±% 1970 976,269—     1980 1,235,553+26.6% 1991 1,642,771+33.0% 2000 2,009,893+22.3% 2010 2,399,839+19.4% 2021 2,470,000+2.9%Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org.Source: Department of Statistics, Malaysia (2021)

Sarawak's population is very diverse, comprising many races and ethnic groups. Sarawak has more than 40 sub-ethnic groups, each with its own distinct language, culture and lifestyle. This makes Sarawak demography very distinct and unique compared to its Peninsular counterpart. However, it largely mirrors to other territories in Borneo - Sabah, Brunei and Kalimantan.

Ethnic groups of Sarawak[edit]

Ethnic groups in Sarawak[1]

  Iban (28.8%)  Malay (22.9%)  Chinese (23.3%)  Bidayuh (8%)  Other Bumiputeras (mainly Orang Ulu) (6.3%)  Melanau (4.9%)  Non-Malaysians (4.7%)  Others (0.6%)

A Modern Iban Longhouse, built using new materials and preserving essential features of communal living

Iban girls dressed in full Iban (women) attire during Gawai festivals in Debak, Betong region, Sarawak

In general, there are several major ethnic groups in Sarawak: Iban, Chinese , Malay, Bidayuh, Orang Ulu, Melanau and several minor ethnic groups placed collectively under 'Others', such as Indian, Eurasian, Kedayan, Javanese, Bugis, Murut and many more.

Maps[edit]

Below are distribution of ethnic groups in Sarawak by state constituencies, based on 2020 census.[2]

Iban

Malay

Chinese

Bidayuh

Melanau

Dayak people[edit]

The Dayak of Sarawak comprises the Iban and Bidayuh.

Iban[edit]

Main article: Iban people

Sea Dayaks (Iban) women from Rejang, Sarawak, wearing rattan corsets decorated with brass rings and filigree adornments. The family adds to the corset dress as the girl ages and based on her family's wealth.

The Ibans comprise the largest percentage (28.8%) of Sarawak's population. Iban is native to Borneo and their ancestral homeland is located in the Upper Kapuas, West Kalimantan before their migrations to Sarawak from the 1750s.[3] Formerly reputed to be the most formidable headhunters on the island of Borneo, the Ibans of today are a generous, hospitable and placid people.[4]

Because of their history as farmers, pirates and fishermen, Ibans were conventionally referred to as the "Sea Dayaks". The early Iban settlers migrated from Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of Borneo south of Sarawak, via the Kapuas River. They crossed over the Kelingkang range and set up home in the river valleys of Batang Ai, the Skrang River, Saribas, and the Rajang River. The Ibans dwell in longhouses, stilted structures with a large number of rooms housing a whole community of families.[4]

An Iban longhouse may still display head trophies or antu pala. These suspended heads mark tribal victories and were a source of honour. The Dayak Iban ceased practising headhunting in the 1930s.[4]

The Ibans are renowned for their Pua Kumbu (traditional Iban weavings), silver craft, wooden carvings and bead work. Iban tattoos, which were originally symbols of bravery among Iban warriors, have become amongst the most distinctive in the world.[4] The Ibans are also famous for a sweet rice wine called tuak, which is served during big celebrations and festive occasions.[5]

The large majority of Ibans practise Christianity. However, like most other ethnic groups in Sarawak, they still observe many of their traditional rituals and beliefs. Sarawak Iban celebrates colourful festivals such as the generic all-encomposing Gawai Dayak (harvest festival) which is a recent invention and thus held by all Dayak tribes including Iban, Bidayuh and Orang Ulu regardless of their religion. The major festivals of the Iban people are Gawai Bumai (Rice Farming Festival) that includes at least four stages i.e. Gawai Batu (Whetstone Festival), Gawai Benih (Seed Festival), Gawai Ngemali Umai / Jagok (Farm-Healing Festival), Gawai Matah (Harvest-Starting Festival) and Gawai Basimpan (Paddy Safekeeping Festival), Gawai Tuah (Fortune Festival) that comprises Gawai Namaka Tuah (Fortune-Welcoming Festival), Gawai Tajau (Jar Festival) and Gawai Pangkong Tiang (House Post Banging Festival), Gawai Sakit (Healing Festival) including Pelian by a manang shaman, Renong Sakit and Sugi Sakit by a lemambang bard, Gawai Antu (festival of the dead) to honour ancestors and the rarely celebrated but the most elaborate and complex Gawai Burong (Bird Festival) with nine ascending stages in the Saribas/Skrang region or Gawai Amat (Real Festival) in the Baleh region with eight degrees as listed by Masing.

Due to the natural culture of bajalai (sojurn) among Ibans mainly in search of jobs, there is a thriving Iban population of between 300,000 and 350,000 in Johor, found mostly in the area between Pasir Gudang and Masai on the eastern end of the Johor Bahru metropolitan area. Sizeable Iban communities are also present in Kuala Lumpur and Penang, likewise seeking employment. Most will return home during the Gawai Dayak.

Bidayuh[edit]

Main article: Bidayuh

Concentrated mainly on the west end of Borneo, the Bidayuhs make up 8% of the population in Sarawak are now most numerous in the hill counties of Lundu, Bau, Penrissen, Padawan, Siburan and Serian, within an hour's drive from Kuching.

Historically, as other tribes were migrating into Sarawak and forming settlements including a degree of historical Malayisation mainly taken place in the coastal areas, the Bidayuhs retreated further inland, hence earning them the name of "Land Dayaks" or "land owners". The word Bidayuh in itself literally means "land people" in Biatah dialect. In Bau-Jagoi/Singai dialect, the pronunciation is "Bidoyoh" which also carry the same meaning.

The traditional community construction of the Bidayuh is the "baruk", a roundhouse that rises about 1.5 metres off the ground. It serves as the granary and the meeting house for the settlement's community. Longhouses were typical in the olden days, similar to that of the Ibans.

Typical of the Sarawak indigenous groups, the Bidayuhs are well known for their hospitality, and are reputed to be the best makers of tuak, or rice wine. Bidayuhs also use distilling methods to make arak tonok, a kind of moonshine.[6]

The Bidayuhs speak a number of different but related dialects. Some Bidayuhs speak either Iban or Sarawak Malay as their main language. While some of them still practise traditional religions, the majority of modern-day Bidayuhs have adopted the Christian faith with a few villages embracing the Islamic faith as a minority group within the Bidayuh community.

Salako & Lara[edit]

This ethnic group forms a small minority with very little or no comprehensive studies done by any party on their dialect, culture/customs and history. Although classified as Bidayuh by the Malaysian government for political convenience, the Salako and Lara culture have nothing in common with the other Bidayuh groups and their oral tradition claim different descent and migration histories. It is understandable that since this group is living within Bidayuh-majority areas and the fact that they also prefer to stay in one permanent inland area, most probably for agricultural reasons instead of branching out to other locations as opposed to the other races, they are grouped together as Land Dayaks.

This tribal community is believed to have originated from Gajing Mountain, at the source of Salakau River, near Singkawang in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Their language is completely different and not intelligible with the other spoken Bidayuh dialects in the other districts. They are mainly found concentrated in the Lundu area. In August 2001, the Salako and Lara community set up the Salako-Lara Association to safe guard and preserve their culture and custom for the future generations.

Orang Ulu[edit]

Main article: Orang Ulu

A Kayan man, playing the Sapeh

Orang Ulu is an ethnic group in Sarawak. The various Orang Ulu groups together make up to 6.3% of Sarawak's population. The phrase Orang Ulu means upriver people and is a term used to collectively describe the numerous tribes that live upriver in Sarawak's vast interior. Such groups include the major Kayan and Kenyah tribes, and the smaller neighbouring groups of the Kajang, Kejaman, Punan, Ukit, and Penan. Nowadays, the definition also includes the down-river tribes of the Lun Bawang, Lun Dayeh, "mean upriver" or "far upstream", Berawan, Saban as well as the plateau-dwelling Kelabits. Orang Ulu is a term coined officially by the government to identify several ethnics and sub-ethnics who live mostly at the upriver and uphill areas of Sarawak. Most of them live in the district of Baram, Miri, Belaga, Limbang and Lawas.

The Orang Ulu are artistic people with longhouses elaborately decorated with murals and woodcarvings.[7] They are also well known for their intricate beadwork and detailed tattoos. The Orang Ulu tribe can also be identified by their unique musical sound made by a sapeh, a stringed instrument similar to a mandolin.

The vast majority of the Orang Ulu tribe are Christians but traditional religions are still practised in some areas.

Some of the major tribes making up the Orang Ulu group include:

Kayan[edit]

There are approximately 43,000 Kayans in Sarawak. The Kayan tribe built their longhouses in the northern interiors of Sarawak midway on the Baram River, the upper Rejang River and the lower Tubau River, and were traditionally headhunters.

They are well known for their boat making skills. The Kayan people carve from a single block of belian, the strongest of the tropical hardwoods.[8]

Although many Kayan have become Christians, some still practise paganistic beliefs, but this is becoming more rare.[9]

Lun Bawang[edit]

The Lun Bawang are indigenous to the highlands of East Kalimantan, Brunei (Temburong District), southwest of Sabah (Interior Division) and northern region of Sarawak (Limbang Division). Lun Bawang people are traditionally agriculturalists and rear poultry, pigs and buffalo.

Lun Bawangs are also known to be hunters and fishermen. Alternatively, they are also collectively called the Murut of Sarawak and are closely related to the Lun Dayeh of Sabah , Kalimantan and Murut Brunei.[10]

Kelabit[edit]

With a population of approximately 6000, the Kelabit are inhabitants of Bario – a remote plateau in the Sarawak Highlands, slightly over 1,200 meters above sea level. The Kelabits form a tight-knit agrarian community and practicing unique agricultural practices for generations. Famous for their rice-farming, they also cultivate a variety of other crops which are suited to the cooler climate of the Highlands of Bario. The Kelabits are closely related to the Lun Bawang.

The Kelabit are predominantly Christian, the Bario Highlands having been visited by Christian missionaries many years ago. A Christian revival, the Bario revival changed them.[11]

Kenyah[edit]

With the population about 64,000, the Kenyah inhabit the Upper Belaga and upper Baram. There is little historical evidence regarding the exact origin of the Kenyah tribe. Their heartland however, is Long San, along the Baram River and Belaga along Rajang River. Their culture is very similar to that of the Kayan tribe with whom they live in close association.

The typical Kenyah village consists of only one longhouse. Most inhabitants are farmers, planting rice in burnt jungle clearings. With the rapid economic development, especially in timber industry, many of them work in timber camps.[citation needed]

Penan[edit]

The Penan are the only true nomadic people in Sarawak and are amongst the last of the world's hunter-gatherers.[1] The Penan make their home under the rainforest canopy, deep within the vast expanse of Sarawak's jungles. Even today, the Penan continue to roam the rainforest hunting wild boar and deer with blowpipes.[citation needed]

The Penan are skilled weavers and make high-quality rattan baskets and mats. The traditional Penan religion worships a supreme god called Bungan. However, the increasing number who have abandoned the nomadic lifestyle for settlement in longhouses have converted to Christianity.[12]

Punan Bah[edit]

Main article: Punan Bah people

Not to be confused with the Penan, the Punan Bah or Punan is a distinct ethnic group found in Sarawak, Malaysia. They are mostly found around the Bintulu area and also in Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of Borneo. They live on a mixed economy, engaging in swidden style of agriculture, with hill paddy as the main crop & supplemented by a range of other tropical plants. Hunting, fishing, and gathering of forest resources are the other important contributors to their economy. In recent times, many of the educated younger generation gradually migrated to urban areas such as Bintulu, Sibu, Kuching and Kuala Lumpur in search of better living & returning home occasionally, especially during major festivities such as Harvest Festival / or Bungan festival.

At the moment, the term Punan is often indiscriminately & collectively used to refer to the then unknown or yet to be classified tribes as such as Punan Busang, Penihing, Sajau Hovongan, Uheng Kareho, Merah, Aput, Tubu, Bukat, Ukit, Habongkot and Penyawung. There has been no effort to comprehensively study or research on this ensemble of tribes; these communities lack the privilege and are deprived of their rights to be recognised as individual & unique races (with their own tradition, language & cultural heritage) within the nation's list of ethnic classification, resulting to more than 20 different tribes / ethnics (unrelated to one another) found on the island of Borneo being lumped together into one ethnic group, which includes;

Punan Busang

Punan Penihing

Punan Batu

Punan Sajau

Punan Hovongan of Kapuas Hulu, West Kalimantan

Punan Uheng Kereho of Kapuas Hulu, West Kalimantan

Punan Murung of Murung Raya, Central Kalimantan

Punan Aoheng (Suku Dayak Pnihing) of East Kalimantan

Punan Merah (Siau)

Punan Aput

Punan Merap

Punan Tubu

Punan Ukit/Bukitan

Dayak Bukat

Punan Habongkot

Punan Panyawung

Sebop[edit]

The Sebop is one of the least known groups in Sarawak and they can be found in upper Tinjar river in the Miri Division of Sarawak. Within the Sebup group are the sub-groups that include Long Pekun, Maleng, Lirong, Long Kapah, Long Lubang, Teballau and Long Suku. Cultural researchers acknowledged that there is a Sebop stream in the Usun Apau from which the Sebop got their ethnic name. The Sebup ancestors were said to have lived in the adjacent valleys on the southern side of Usun Apau namely; Seping, Menapun, Menawan and Luar rivers before they moved north towards the Tinjar. Today the Sebup are found in Long Luyang, Long Batan, Long Selapun, Long Pala, Long Nuwah and Long Subeng. Amongst the longhouses, Long Luyang is the longest and most populated Sebop settlement. It comprises more than 100 units.

The Sebop are Christians and their cultural festival is Pesta Coen, a celebration that was used to mark the successful returned of their warriors (Lakin Ayau) from the battlefield. Today it is celebrated as a social cultural festival for everyone to return to the longhouse. Among the highlights of the celebration are the raising up of the gigantic ceremonial pole (Kelebong) as well as the traditional dances and songs.

Tagal[edit]

Main article: Murut people

Also known as "Murut Sabah", "Tagal" or "hill people", this indigenous subgroup of the Murut people can be found inhabiting the lowland areas around Lawas & Limbang. They are part of an interstate ethnic group that is found highly concentrated along the borderlands and inland areas of Sabah, Brunei, Kalimantan and Sarawak, with the majority in the former.

The Tagal are mostly shifting cultivators, with some hunting and riverine fishing on the side. They use the Tagol Murut language as the lingua franca of the whole group. It belongs to the North Bornean subdivision of the Austronesian language family. A majority of the Tagal people are Christians, with a few Muslims.

Bisaya[edit]

Main article: Bisaya (Borneo)

The Bisaya are an indigenous people, concentrated around the Limbang river in northern Sarawak state. Most Sarawakian Bisaya are Christians. The Bisaya are also found in Sabah (around Kuala Penyu and Beaufort). In Sabah, the majority of them are Muslims; the minority practice Christianity. Some of them still practice Paganism. They are believed to be distantly related to the Visayan of the Philippines. Legend belief is such that in the distant past, there were large migration of Bisaya to The Philippines. However the Bisaya dialect is more related to Malay language than the Philippines Visaya language. Such similarities may be due to the standardising effect and influence of the Malay Language has over the Borneon Bisaya as well as all other ethnic languages spoken in Malaysia.

Bisaya’s indigenous people have settled in Borneo for a long time. They are skilled in agriculture such as paddy planting and cultivation of gingers. They also hunt wild animals and rear domestic animals such as chicken, goat and buffaloes. Bisaya people are also skilled in catching fish, both in the rivers and sea.

Melanau[edit]

A replica of a traditional Melanau House

Main article: Melanau

The Melanaus have been thought to be amongst the original settlers of Sarawak.[13] They make up 4.9% of the population in Sarawak.

Originally from Mukah (the 10th Administrative Division as launched in March 2002), the Melanaus traditionally lived in tall houses. Nowadays, they have adopted a Malay lifestyle, living in kampong-type settlements. Traditionally, Melanaus were fishermen and still today, they are reputed as some of the finest boat-builders and craftsmen.[14]

While the Melanaus are ethnically different from the Malays, their lifestyles and practices are quite similar. This is especially the case in the larger towns and cities where most Melanau have adopted the Islamic faith.[15]

The Melanaus were believed to originally summon spirits in a practice verging on paganism. Today most of the Melanaus are Muslims whilst some were converted to Christianity (especially around Mukah & Dalat areas). However some still celebrate traditional animist festivals such as the annual Kaul festival in Mukah District.

Malay[edit]

Sarawakian Malay[edit]

Traditional Sarawakian Malay home

The Malays make up 22.9% of the population in Sarawak. Sarawak was a home for several former native Malay kingdoms, including the Sarawak Sultanate (1598–1641), Banting (16th century), Saribas (15th century), Samarahan (13th century) and Santubong (7th century).

Similar to the ethnogenesis development in many parts of Borneo, a large number of the Malays in Sarawak are indigenous to the land and were historically descendant from various native Bornean tribes that have adopted the Malay culture, language and the Islamic faith for centuries, drawn in a process known as Malayisation (Masuk Melayu).[16][17] At the same time, there are also other Sarawakian Malays that can traced their lineage from a diverse origin and ancestries, including Brunei, Sumatera, Natuna, Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan and other regions.

Traditionally fishermen, these seafaring people chose to form settlements on the banks of the many rivers of Sarawak, while others (the native tribes) were absorbed into the Malay identity since most of the historical contacts, religious conversion and assimilation were predominantly taken place in the rivers and coastal areas. Today, many Malays have migrated to the cities where they are heavily involved in the public and private sectors and taken up various professions.

Malay villages, known as Kampungs, are a cluster of wooden houses on stilts, many of which are still located by rivers on the outskirts of major towns and cities, play home to traditional cottage industries. The Malays are famed for their wood carvings, silver and brass craftings as well as traditional Malay textile weaving with silver and gold thread (kain songket). Malay in Sarawak have a distinct dialect which is called Sarawak Malay. It has many elements of the Sambas language spoken before contact with the Bruneian sultanate. The culture of Sarawakian Malay is also somewhat unusual such as bermukun, Sarawak zapin, and keringkam weaving. It is possible, though insufficient studies exist, that these are remnants of the Sambas sultanate’s culture, prior to a change in identity and the speaking of a unique hybrid of Malay-Sambas by the previously Sambas speaking natives.

In Federal Constitution, Malays are Muslim by religion, having been converted to the faith some 600 years ago with the Islamification of the native region. Their religion is reflected in their culture and art and Islamic symbolism is evident in local architecture – from homes to government buildings. In Malaysia, people of Indonesian descent: Javanese, Bugis, and Banjar are constitutionally classified as Malays, and have the same rights should they become a citizen.

Kedayan[edit]

Main article: Kedayan

The Kedayan are an ethnic group residing in parts of Sarawak. They are also known as Kadayan, Kadaian or simply badly spelled as Kadyan by the British. The Kedayan language is spoken by more than 35,000 people in Sarawak, with most of the members of the Kedayan community residing in Lawas, Limbang, Miri and Sibuti areas. A sizable community also exists in Brunei Darussalam and Sabah.

The Kedayans is believed to have Javanese origins. The British Resident Malcolm McArthur attests to their Javanese origins in his Report on Brunei 1904.[18] Meanwhile, historians such as Pehin Jamil claimed the Kedayans were bought over from Java to Borneo by Sultan Bolkiah the 5th during his famous conquests of Borneo.[19] This was due to the Kedayan's prowess in padi farming and other agricultural abilities. Other researchers consider them indigenous to Borneo, having accepted Islam and influenced by Malay culture, primarily by Bruneians.

Kedayan are mainly padi farmers or fishermen. They have a reputation for knowledge of medicinal plants, which they grow to treat a wide range of ailments or to make tonics. The Kedayan tend to settle inland in a cluster pattern, with houses built in the centre and with fields radiating outwards. The Kedayans traditionally tended to be a rather closed community, discouraging contact with outsiders. Intermarriage among relatives was encouraged for economic and social reasons.

Javanese[edit]

Main article: Javanese people

The present generation are descended from the original ethnic Javanese people, the majority from the province of Central Java, who arrived in Sarawak as "kuli kontrak", indentured servants who were brought in by the Dutch via Batavia (modern-day Jakarta) during the late 1800s to the 1940s & transferred to a British company to work in the rubber plantations. After the end of their contracts, some of them had decided to settle down & work on land no longer producing rubber. Over the years, these labourers were prosperous & were later given the right of ownership to several hectares of land.

An estimated 5,000 Javanese people are found all over the state, establishing their own villages, with the majority concentrated in Kuching & its surrounding areas. Some of the younger generation still carry traditional Javanese names & are identified as ethnic Javanese in their birth certificates. They are proud of their heritage; the current population still speak the language of their parents & retaining their age-old traditions & practices of their forefathers.

The friendly Javanese are traditionally Muslims, so they have a strong affinity with the Malays, with many of them intermarrying & living within Malay-majority areas & also other communities. They use Sarawak Malay or English as a common lingua franca to communicate with the other ethnic groups.

Bugis[edit]

Main article: Bugis

The Bugis are an ethnic group which had originated from the southwestern province of Sulawesi, Indonesia. They are renowned around the archipelago as adventurous seafarers and merchants, establishing trading routes with other ports along Sarawak's coastal areas over the past few centuries, eventually settling down with their families or taking up local spouses. The Bugis artisans are noted for their expertise in building tongkangs & proas, plying their skills at the fishing villages and local dockyards. They are also skilled farmers, construction workers, traders and fishermen.

The Bugis population in Sarawak is scattered throughout the state. Many can be found living along the coast alongside or within other communities and also opening up small agricultural settlements further inland, especially in the Sarikei district. They are predominantly Muslims and many have amalgamated with the local Muslim society through marriage.

Indian/South Asian[edit]

Main article: Malaysian Indian Main article: South Asian

The Indians and generally South Asians in Sarawak are a small geographical and ethno-cultural community, estimated to be between 6,500 people (figure also includes those of mixed parentage and professionals, students and residents from other parts of Malaysia), found mainly in the urban exteriors of Kuching and Miri division. The majority of Indians in Sarawak are Tamils. There are also other Indians minorities from the Punjabi Sikhs, Telugus, Sindhis and Keralites ethnic groups.

The Sikhs were among the earliest South Asians to set foot on Sarawak's soil, recruited by the first White Rajah, Sir James Brooke in Singapore as police officers to bring peace, law and order during the 1857 Chinese uprising in Bau. At a much later stage, the Sikhs were employed as security personnel for the Sarawak Shell Company in Miri and also as government-appointed prison wardens. It is also believed that there were a few Sikhs in the Sarawak Rangers, which was formed in 1872.

As for the Tamils and other minority Indian ethnic groups, their history in the state began during the 1860s, when they were brought in from South India by the second White Rajah Charles Brooke to work in the tea and coffee plantations at Matang Hills. They were also traders and travelers visiting the state for religious, educational or business opportunities. After many years, the South Asian community had extended to include newer immigrants from Sri Lanka, Pakistan and other areas in India. The Indian Muslims were prominent in the restaurant business, textile trade & Indian food production. They were also instrumentally significant in their contribution to the Islamic fellowship and religious welfare in the state with their Muslim Malay brethren.

Many of the present-day Sarawak South Asians are from mixed marriages with the Malays, Chinese & other Sarawak native ethnic groups, with many of the younger generation using English, Sarawak Malay or one of the native or Chinese dialects to communicate with everybody else. They have assimilated well within the state's general population as a culturally distinct group in Sarawak that is rather unique as opposed to the Indian diaspora of Peninsular Malaysia and the Asian region in general. A number of Sarawak Indians can be found working as doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers and other professional careers in the government and private sectors.

Eurasian[edit]

Mixed marriages/unions between Europeans and local spouses have been going on for centuries, since the time European traders, sailors and colonists first set foot on Sarawak's soils.

The Eurasians in Sarawak continues to be the smallest of minorities, with many of them rather identifying themselves with the major racial denomination of their local parent rather than that of their European, Australian or American parent, as the local state government does not formally classify them as an official ethnicity. At the moment, the exact number of people in the local Eurasian community is not known, as many of them registered themselves (for administrative and social ease) as Iban, Bidayuh, Chinese, Malay, Melanau, Orang Ulu, Indian or simply under "others". Besides assimilating themselves into the general populace, many of them had also migrated to Peninsular Malaysia or their foreign parents' countries of origin.

The local Eurasians established the Sarawak Eurasian Association (SEA) in the year 2000 to foster closer ties among members of this community and also to raise awareness on the existence of this distinct group. Their association is quite unique, if compared to the Eurasian associations of Peninsular Malaysia, as it is composed by members of different religious faiths.

Sinitic people[edit]

A Paifang in Malaysia-China Friendship Park, Kuching

Main article: Malaysian Chinese

Chinese records has shown that China had a trading contact with Borneo as early as 600 A.D. when a country known as "Po Ni" (present day Brunei) sent tribute to Tang Emperor. When British explorer James Brooke arrived in Borneo in 1839, there were several hundred Chinese working in pepper plantations there. The first Hakka migrants worked as labourers in the gold mines at Bau. This was followed by the migration of Fuzhou people to the Rajang basin in 1900s, working as farmers in cash crop industries such as pepper, rubber, sago, and oil palm. Meanwhile, Hokkien people from the Xiamen area, worked as merchants. Lastly, the Cantonese people, who made up majority of the sinitic people population in the Peninsular Malaysia, not been really attracted to Sarawak.[20]

As of 1989, 30% of Sarawak Chinese population was made up of ethnic Hakka, followed by Fuzhounese (30%), Hokkien (12%), and Cantonese (8%). The Sinitic people made up 73% of the population in Kuching and 77% in Sibu.[20]

Through their clan associations, business acumen and work ethic, the Sinitic people organised themselves economically and rapidly dominated commerce. Today, the Sinitic people are amongst Sarawak's most prosperous ethnic groups.

Today, they make up 17.1% of the population of Sarawak (as reported by Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM) in 2021), and consist of communities built from the economic migrants of the 19th and early 20th centuries.

The Sarawak Sinitic people belong to a wide range of ethnic groups, the most significant being:

Hakka

Hokkien

Chaoshanese

Teochew

Shanghainese

Hainanese

Kwongsai

Cantonese

Minnanese

Fujianese

Fuzhounese

Puxian Min

Whereas Hakka is spoken predominantly by the farmers in the interior, Hokkien and Teochew are the dominant languages spoken within the major trading towns and among early traders and businessmen. Hainanese (a.k.a. Hailam) were well known as coffee-shop operators, the Henghua are famous as fishermen. The notable difference between the Sarawakian Sinitic people and those presiding in West Malaysia is the latter’s common use of Cantonese. Malaysian Mandarin however, has become the unifying language spoken by all the distinct ethnic groups with sinitic origins in both East and West Malaysia, replicating China. The Hakka people in Kuching, Sarawak came from Jieyang, Guangdong. The Hokkien came from Zhao'an, Fujian. The Teochew came from Shantou and Chaozhou in Guangdong, the Shanghainese came from Shanghai, Hainanese from Hainan, Cantonese from Guangdong, Fuzhounese from Fuzhou, Fujian. The Kwongsai people came from Guangxi, Chaoshanese people came from Chaoshan, Minnanese people came from Xiamen, Lastly the Henghuas or Hinghwa or Puxian people from Putian, Fujian.

The Sinitic people maintain their ethnic heritage and culture and celebrate all the major cultural festivals, most notably Lunar New Year, the Hungry Ghost Festival and Christmas. The Sarawak Sinitic people are predominantly Buddhists and Christians.

Religions of Sarawak[edit]

Religion in Sarawak (2022)[21]

Religion

Percent

Christianity

 

50.1%

Islam

 

34.2%

Buddhism

 

12.8%

No religion

 

2.2%

Others

 

0.5%

Christianity is the largest religion in Sarawak, representing 50.1% of the total population according to the 2020 census.[21] Sarawakians practice a variety of religions, including Christianity, Chinese folk religion (a fusion of Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism and ancestor worship), Islam, Baha’i Faith and animism.[22] Unsurprisingly, the issue of Islam as state religion divides the Muslim and non-Muslims with a contrasting 85% supporting and opposing, respectively. Nevertheless, 93% of Sarawakians consider their regional Sarawak identity to be their first choice in defining themselves which is in stark contrast to Peninsular Malaysia where 55% see religion as their most important identity marker. This is in line with the Malaccan Sultanate from which the Malay language and culture stems.[23] Adopting a common name, language and religion has united the various West Malaysian indigenous communities and many Sambas indigenous people of Kuching. Sarawakians across all religions express majority support for increased autonomy for the state - at 76% overall.[24]

Christianity[edit]

Main article: Christianity in Malaysia

St. Joseph's Cathedral, Kuching, a Roman Catholic cathedral in Kuching, Sarawak.

Christianity makes up the largest religion in Sarawak. Sarawak is the state with the highest percentage of Christians in Malaysia and the only state with a Christian majority. According to the 2020 census, Christians make up 50.1% of the population of Sarawak.[21]

Protestants, mostly Anglicans, make up the majority, followed by more than 441,300 Catholics. [25] Other Christian denominations in Sarawak include Methodists, Borneo Evangelical Church (or Sidang Injil Borneo, S.I.B.) and Baptists. Many Sarawakian Christians are mostly non-Malay Bumiputera, ranging from Iban, Bidayuh, Orang Ulu, Murut and Melanau.

Denomination of Christians in Sarawak may vary according to their race, although this is not necessarily true. For example, most Chinese Christians are Methodists, most Ibans and Bidayuhs are either Roman Catholics or Anglicans, whilst most Orang Ulu are S.I.B.s. Church plays an important part in shaping morality of the communities, while many Christians view the church as a religious place. Professing Christianity has led to the abolition of some previous rituals by indigenous ethnics such as headhunting and improper disposal of dead bodies. Since the majority of people indigenous to Sarawak are Christians, these people have adopted Christian names in English or Italian, such as Valentino, Joseph, and Constantine. Almost 93% of the Iban, Kelabit, and Bidayuh have changed their traditional names to English names since they converted to Christianity. Many young indigenous Iban, Kelabit, and Bidayuh people in Sarawak will not practice the ceremonies of their ancestors such as Miring, the worship of Singalang Burung (local deity), and celebration of Gawai Antu. The Bidayuhs are mainly Pagans or animists before they convert to Christianity and they believe in ancestral worship and in the ancient spirits of nature. Due to this, they have big celebrations like the Gawai (1 June), which is a celebration to please the padi spirit for a good harvest and nowadays, since 60% of the population has converted to Christianity, the young Bidayuh generation will celebrate only Christmas as their first priority. Christians among indigenous ethnics have also embraced many Christian values such as preserving modesty and dedication to God.[14]

Christianity has also contributed to the betterment of the education system in Sarawak. There were a lot of missionary schools built during the 1950s to early 1980s.[26] Christianity has gained popularity throughout Sarawak, transcending race and religion. Due to federalisation of the education system, most of these missionary schools have been converted into government national schools. Participation of the church in these schools has been reduced. The Malaysian government has allowed the schools to continue using religious symbols on school buildings and teaching Christian values to non-Muslim students.[27]

Christians in Sarawak observe many Christian festivals just like their counterparts in other part of the world, namely Christmas Day, Good Friday, Easter Monday, All Soul's Day, and Ascension Day. However, only Christmas and Good Friday are public holidays in Sarawak.[28]

Islam[edit]

Main article: Islam in Malaysia

Kuching Mosque

Islam is the second-largest religion in Sarawak, after Christianity. According to the 2020 census, 34.2% of Sarawak's population were Muslim.[21] All Malay-speaking Muslims are designated Malays by the Malaysian Constitution.[29] Malay Muslim culture contributes significantly to Sarawakian Muslim tradition as a whole especially for weddings, circumcision (coming of age ritual), 'majlis doa selamat', etc. Sarawak Malays were originally a mixture of Malay migrants from the rest of Southeast Asian archipelago that migrated to the area hundreds of years ago. They intermarried with local ethnic groups such as Pegu, Bliun and Seru, these ethnic groups were later absorbed into ethnic Sarawak Malay identity.[30]

Other ethnic groups such as Melanaus and Miriek have retained their languages in whole and have strong Islamic influence in their traditions from their ancestors. Sarawak was once home to various Islamic-Malay kingdoms such as Saribas, Melano, Santubong and Kalaka, etc.[31] They have also absorbed traditions from the Malaccan sultanate.[32] Melanaus, depending on which region or kampung they live in, are normally either Muslim or Christian (while a small number are pagans). Most of them live in Kuching, Matu, Mukah, Igan and Bintulu. About 65% of Melanau people are of the Sunni Muslim belief while the remaining 35% are either Christians or animists.[33]

Kedayan is another distinct ethnic group from Malay and Melanau, but have been Muslim since the time of the Brunei Sultanate, another ally of the Malaccan Sultanate [34] Although small in number, with the majority of their closest kin living in Brunei, they contribute to a majority of the Muslim population in Sibuti and Bekenu district. Despite being designated as a distinct ethnic group, they speak a dialect of Brunei Malay.

Administratively, Islam is under the authority of the state of Islamic Council, which is Majlis Islam Sarawak (MIS), a state government agency. Under MIS, there are various agencies dealing with various aspects of Islam such as Jabatan Agama Islam Sarawak (JAIS), Majlis Fatwa and Baitulmal Sarawak.[35]

Muslims in Sarawak observe all Islamic festivals, such as Hari Raya Aidilfitri (Puasa), Hari Raya Aidiladha (Haji), Awal Muharram and Maulidur Rasul. All these celebrations have been commenced as public holidays in Sarawak. However, Israk Mikraj, Awal Ramadhan and Nuzul Quran, although observed, are not public holidays.[36]

Buddhism/Taoism[edit]

Tua Pek Kong Temple, Sibu

Main article: Buddhism in Malaysia

Buddhism is the traditional religion of the overseas Chinese community in Sarawak, brought by their ancestors before the Cultural Revolution in China. According to the 2020 census, 12.8% of Sarawakians were Buddhist.[21] Many of the Sarawakian Chinese community, which comprises the bulk of the Buddhist population, actually practise a mixture of Buddhism, Taoism and Chinese folk religion. As there is no official name for this particular set of beliefs, many followers instead list down their religion as Buddhism, mainly for bureaucratic convenience. Buddhists from other ethnic especially Bumiputera are rare and almost insignificant to be related with, perhaps in small community with humble and low profile practice of the Buddhist ceremony among some Bumiputra

people in Sarawak.

Buddhists in Sarawak observe Wesak Day. It is a public holiday in Sarawak.

Hinduism[edit]

Main article: Hinduism in Malaysia

Unlike their fellow Peninsular Malaysians, Sarawak Hindus are very small in number. Almost all Hindus in Sarawak are Indians, while some are Chinese and other indigenous people through inter-marriages. There are less than 10 Hindu temples throughout Sarawak, most of them are located in Kuching and Miri. Currently there are 5,000 Hindus (representing 0.2% of the population) in Sarawak.

Hindus in Sarawak observe Deepavali and Thaipusam. However, none of these festivals are public holidays in Sarawak.

Sikhism[edit]

Main article: Sikhism in Malaysia

Gurdwara Sahib in Kuching

The first Gurdwara was built in 1911 in Kuching, built by the Sikh community of pioneers in the state, mainly police and security personnel. At the present, there are four known Gurdwaras in the state, with one each located in Kuching, Miri, Sibu and Bau, with the latter no longer in existence since the late 1950s, due to the fact that there were no longer any Sikhs in that area.

Besides being used as places of worship, the Gurdwaras also hold weekly Gurmukhi classes and also serve as community centres for the thriving Sikh community.

Baháʼí Faith[edit]

Main article: Baháʼí Faith

Baháʼí is one of the recognised religions in Sarawak. Various races embraced the Baháʼí Faith, from Chinese to Iban, Bidayuh, Bisayahs, Penans and Indians. In towns, the majority Baháʼí community is often Chinese, but in rural communities, they are of all races, Ibans, Bidayuhs, etc. In some schools, Baháʼí associations or clubs for students exist.

Baháʼí communities are now found in all the various divisions of Sarawak. However, these communities do not accept assistance from government or other organisations for activities which are strictly for Baháʼís. If, however, these services extend to include non-Baháʼís also, e.g. education for children's classes adult literacy, then sometimes the community does accept assistance.

The administration of the Baháʼí Faith is through Local Spiritual Assemblies. There is no priesthood among the Baháʼís. Election is held annually without nomination or electioneering. The Baháʼís should study the community and seek those members who display mature experience, loyalty, are knowledgeable in the Faith.

There are more than 45,000 Baháʼís in more than 230 localities in Sarawak.

Animism[edit]

Main article: Animism

Many Dayak especially Iban continue to practice traditional ceremonies, particularly with dual marriage rites and during the important harvest and ancestral festivals such as Gawai Dayak, Gawai Kenyalang and Gawai Antu.

Other ethnicities who have a rapidly dwindling and trace amount of animism practitioners are Melanau and Bidayuh.

See also[edit]

Demographics of Sabah

Demographics of Malaysia

References[edit]

^ "Taburan Penduduk dan Ciri-ciri asas demografi (Population Distribution and Basic demographic characteristics 2010)" (PDF). Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 May 2014. Retrieved 11 December 2015. p. 13 [26/156]

^ "TABURAN PENDUDUK MENGIKUT PBT & MUKIM 2010". Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Retrieved 15 December 2017.

^ "Iban as a koine language in Sarawak". 1 May 2023.

^ a b c d Journey Malaysia. Journey Malaysia. Retrieved on 29 August 2021.

^ Tourism Malaysia USA Archived 20 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Tourism Malaysia USA. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ LongHuse Archived 5 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Longhouse.org.my (15 October 2009). Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Vtaide. Vtaide. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Heesyam, Faizal. (27 July 2010) Discover Borneo. Discover Borneo. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ XFab Archived 15 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. XFab. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Sri Lankan News Web Archived 24 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Srilankanewsweb.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Bulan, Solomon and Bulan-Dorai, L (2014), The Bario Revival, HomeMatters Network

^ Discover Borneo. Discover Borneo. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Gomiri Archived 20 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Gomiri. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ a b Museum of Learning. Museumstuff.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Melanau | The Grown Ups. Swingrownups.wordpress.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ "Some Aspects of Iban-Maloh Contact in West Kalimantan" (PDF). 7 May 2023.

^ "Asal usul Melayu Sarawak: Menjejaki titik tak pasti". 1 May 2023.

^ McArthur, M. S. H. (1987). Report on Brunei in 1904. Ohio University Center for International Studies.

^ Al-Sufri, M. J., & Hassan, M. A. (2000). Tarsilah Brunei: the early history of Brunei up to 1432 AD (Vol. 1). Brunei History Centre, Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports.

^ a b Zepp, Raymond (March 1989). "The Chinese in Sarawak". Bulletin de Sinologie. Nouvelle Série. French Centre for Research on Contemporary China (53): 19–21. JSTOR 43436606.

^ a b c d e "Census Dashboard". Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Retrieved 1 March 2023.

^ Tititudorancea. Tititudorancea. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Sneddon, James N. (2003), The Indonesian language: its history and role in modern society, University of New South Wales Press, ISBN 0-86840-598-1, pp. 74–77

^ Hock Guan, Lee (April 2018). "The ISEAS Borneo Survey: Autonomy, Identity, Islam and Language/Education in Sarawak" (PDF). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. 19: 3–8.

^ Ruling coalition holds Malaysia's Christian-majority state, Union of Catholic Asian News, Dec 2021

^ Travel Malaysia. Go2travelmalaysia.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Network Base. Networkbase.info. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ One Stop Malaysia Archived 21 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine. One Stop Malaysia. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Tititudorrancea. Tititudorancea.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ "Mencari kaum yang hilang di Sarawak". 29 July 2016.

^ Al-Sufri, M. J. (1990). Tarsilah Brunei: sejarah awal dan perkembangan Islam (Vol. 1). Jabatan Pusat Sejarah, Kementerian Kebudayaan Belia dan Sukan.

^ Andaya, Barbara Watson; Andaya, Leonard Y. (2015). A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400-1830. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88992-6.

^ Borneo Tropicana. Borneo Tropicana. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann K. S.; Lewis, Bernard (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 2A, The Indian Sub-Continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim West. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29137-8.

^ Travel Malaysia. Go2travelmalaysia.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Go Malaysia. Go Malaysia. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

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Indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities in Sarawak in Malaysia - Minority Rights Group

Indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities in Sarawak in Malaysia - Minority Rights Group Please note that on our website we use cookies to enhance your experience, and for analytics purposes. To learn more about our cookies, please read our privacy policy. By clicking ‘Allow cookies’, you agree to our use of cookies. By clicking ‘Decline’, you don’t agree to our Privacy Policy. Decline Allow cookies World map Donate Search en No translations available HomeAbout usWho we areLearn more about MRG, find staff and board members and discover our history.What we doFind out more about our strategy and activities.Coalitions and networksWe belong to numerous coalitions and networks where we join efforts with like-minded organizations on issues concerning minority and indigenous rights.Funders and annual reportsOur work would not be possible without the support of our funders. 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Make a one-off or regular donation today to support our work.Get involvedLearn how you can join our movement for minority and indigenous rights, from events and trainings to formal partnerships. Sign up to our newsletter World map Sign up to our newsletter Home / World map / Malaysia / Indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities in Sarawak in Malaysia Indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities in Sarawak in Malaysia Return to world map Profile Ethnicity: Iban, Bidayuh, Chinese, Malay First language/s: Iban, Bidayuh, Malay, Hakka, Hokchiu, Cantonese, Hokkien Religion/s: Christianity, Animism, Islam, Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism Sarawak has a population of more than 2.6 million, made up of some 26 different ethnic groups. The non-Muslim indigenous communities are collectively called Dayaks – most of whom are Christians or practise animist beliefs – and they account for about 40 per cent of Sarawak’s inhabitants. The two biggest ethnic groups within the Dayak community are the Iban (also known as Sea Dayak), making up 30 per cent of the population, and the Bidayuh; others include the Kenyah, Kayan, Kedayan, Murut, Punan, Bisayah, Kelabit, Berawan and Penan. Dayaks who live in the interior of Sarawak are sometimes referred to as Orang Ulu, or people from the interior. Members of this group typically live in longhouses and practise shifting cultivation; they engage in fishing to supplement their diet if they live near a river. Only a few hundred of the Eastern Penan continue to live as a nomadic people of the rainforest. The Chinese, at around 24 per cent, make up the second largest ethnic group in Sarawak, though they themselves can be subdivided as including speakers of Hakka, Fu-chou (Hokchiu), Cantonese and Hokkien. Most live in urban areas and are Buddhists or Christians or practise Taoism. The number of Malays has increased to about 24 per cent of Sarawak’s population. They are in fact a heterogeneous group of people since many are probably the descendants of indigenous peoples who started to convert to Islam from the fifteenth century and became Malay through their adoption of the Malay language. Like the Chinese, they constitute a large percentage of the coastal and urban population. Historical context Sarawak was until relatively recently mainly inhabited by indigenous peoples present on the island of Borneo for thousands of years. Others, such as the Melanau and Malays, are thought to have migrated much later, after the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The Chinese arrived later still, mainly in two distinct waves, first in the mid-eighteenth century in the gold-rich areas of Bau and then in the early twentieth century. Like Sabah, Sarawak was loosely under the control of the Sultan of Brunei until James Brooke became governor of Sarawak in 1841 and was then appointed Rajah by the Sultan in 1842. Members of the Brooke family were to rule Sarawak – and become known as the White Rajahs – until 1946. For much of that century, the Brookes governed with local Malays and Melanau, though they also used Dayaks as the backbone of their army and encouraged Chinese immigration into urban areas. After the end of Japanese occupation in 1945, the Rajah formally ceded sovereignty to the British Crown in 1946 and Sarawak became a British colony in 1946, though some members of the Brooke dynasty resisted its cession to Britain. Despite opposition by a significant proportion of its population, Sarawak became an autonomous state of the federation of Malaysia in 1963. Because of the very large size of the Iban indigenous people, between 1948 and 1963 its language was the lingua franca between the ethnic communities. It was also the language of government for official purposes, including in court, and was taught as a school subject. As in Sabah, the integration of Sarawak into Malaysia in 1963 only occurred after a high level of autonomy for the state and a number of special laws secured the protection of the very large indigenous populations. From the 1970s, much of these legal protections were to be increasingly eroded – despite occasional victories in court – as the exploitation of the region’s natural resources expanded, particularly logging, plantations, oil and gas. The last decades have also seen the incremental transfer of Dayak customary land by the government for logging and plantation activities through various means. The lack of protection of indigenous languages in the Malaysian Constitution also led to public schools operating increasingly and almost exclusively in Malay, and to an apparent decrease in the use of indigenous languages in broadcasting in recent years. In the 1990s, Dayak staged small-scale protests against excessive logging in their immediate surroundings. The government responded by detaining protesters and protecting the logging operations, which are covertly owned by leading Sarawak politicians. In 1994, a decision was made to build the Bakun Dam, South-East Asia’s largest, resulting in about 10,000 indigenous people being relocated to a longhouse settlement named Sungai Asap. Despite controversy about the impact on the environment and local indigenous populations, and the postponement of the project on two occasions, the dam project was re-launched in 2000 and came into operation in 2011. Its construction has left thousands of indigenous residents displaced, struggling with debt and cut off from their traditional sources of livelihood. Political parties representing Dayak interests succeeded in gaining a substantial number of seats in the Sarawak Assembly in the 1980s, but have since then weakened dramatically, partially as a result of their deregistration – under sometimes dubious grounds – and of internal divisions. Current issues The prominent role of Malay as the country’s national language has led it to almost completely supplant English and indigenous languages, particularly Iban, in schools and government. Though English is still taught widely, Iban is only taught as a subject in one school in Kuching, and in less than half of the state’s primary schools which have more than 50 per cent Iban students. This language preference, which appears discriminatory in the context of Sarawak, has contributed greatly to the increased marginalization of many indigenous peoples in terms of access to employment opportunities predicated on fluency in Malay, and may also be contributing to an extremely high level of school drop-outs. The continued use by the Malaysian government and private companies of large tracts of indigenous customary lands for oil palm plantations and other development projects continues to be a highly charged area of controversy, despite theoretical legal protections and a few recent court victories. In 2009, for instance, the Federal Court in Malaysia ruled that indigenous peoples in Sarawak have rights to their lands, used for hunting, gathering and crop production. It was a landmark case, as previously there was little legal precedent recognizing rights over traditional lands.  Yet indigenous communities continue to struggle to secure their land rights in the face of aggressive development programmes, often pushed through with the support and patronage of state officials. In particular Orang Ulu, also known as Dayaks, face growing threats to their traditional lands from the rapid spread of logging, palm oil companies and large-scale hydropower dams. Many thousands of Orang Ulu have been forcibly displaced over the past few years to make way for a series of controversial mega-dams in Borneo, forming the Sarawak Corridor for Renewable Energy (SCORE). Malaysia’s various dam developments have been further tainted by widespread evidence of corruption involving state officials, including Sarawak’s former Chief Minister Taib Mahmud. In 2013, an undercover investigation by UK-based NGO Global Witness exposed rampant nepotism and corruption involving Mahmud in the exploitation of Sarawak’s rainforests and its inhabitants for personal profit.The film documents how the chief minister accepts multimillion-dollar ‘kickbacks’ for the distribution of plantation licences, while allocating cheap land concessions to a nexus of family members: these are subsequently sold off at enormous profits through murky transactions in Singapore, forcing indigenous populations from their traditional lands. In Sarawak, a growing number of indigenous youths are migrating to urban centres in search of work and educational opportunities. This process has largely been driven by Malaysia’s rapid rate of deforestation, which has eroded the traditional livelihoods and lands of indigenous forest dwellers. Nearly 70 per cent of the highland Kelabit tribe in Sarawak has migrated to urban areas and, according to a 2013 survey, the population of Baram dropped from 80,000 to 20,000 in a decade. Activists have warned that the proliferation of new dams will exacerbate this trend. Hunter-gatherer tribes such as the Penan are particularly vulnerable during resettlement as they often lack the occupational skills suited to life outside the forest. This has contributed to the urbanization of poverty among Sarawak’s indigenous population, who already form a significant percentage of squatters in cities such as Miri. However, the Sarawak government maintains that new hydropower dams will boost rural development and discourages Orang Ulu from migrating to cities. Updated January 2018 Donate We stand up for minority and indigenous rights. Find out how Leart more about us £15/month Related content Minority stories 25 February 2016 Life at the Margins: The Challenges of Multiple Discrimination Minorities and indigenous peoples, already marginalised, face further challenges on account of other aspects of their identity – their age, gender, livelihood, disabilities, sexuality or gender identity. East Africa Discrimination Minority stories Learn more Learn more Our strategy We work with ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities, and indigenous peoples to secure their rights and promote understanding between communities. Learn more Stories Discover the latest insights from our global network of staff, partners and allies. 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Sarawak - Wikipedia

Sarawak - Wikipedia

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1Etymology

2History

3Politics

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3.1Government

3.2Administrative divisions

4Security

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4.1Military

4.2Territorial disputes

5Geography

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5.1Biodiversity

5.1.1Conservation issues

6Economy

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6.1Energy

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7Infrastructure

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7.1Broadcasting

7.2Transportation

7.3Healthcare

7.4Education

8Demographics

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8.1Ethnic groups

8.2Languages

9Religion

10Culture

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10.1Cuisine

10.2Portrayal in media

10.3Holidays and festivals

10.4Sports

11International relations

12See also

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15External links

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Sarawak

82 languages

AcèhالعربيةAsturianuAzərbaycancaBasa BaliবাংলাBanjarBân-lâm-gúБеларускаяBikol CentralБългарскиBrezhonegCatalàCebuanoČeštinaDanskDeutschEestiΕλληνικάEspañolEsperantoEuskaraفارسیFrançaisGalego客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî한국어Հայերենहिन्दीHrvatskiIdoIlokanoBahasa IndonesiaIñupiatunИронItalianoעבריתJawaქართულიKiswahiliLatviešuLietuviųMagyarМакедонскиമലയാളംमराठीمازِرونیBahasa Melayu閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄မြန်မာဘာသာNederlands日本語NordfriiskNorsk bokmålOʻzbekcha / ўзбекчаភាសាខ្មែរPiemontèisPolskiPortuguêsRomânăRuna SimiРусскийScotsSimple EnglishSlovenčinaСрпски / srpskiSrpskohrvatski / српскохрватскиSuomiSvenskaTagalogதமிழ்ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး ไทยTürkçeУкраїнськаاردوTiếng ViệtWinaray吴语粵語Zazaki中文

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Coordinates: 2°30′N 113°00′E / 02.5°N 113.0°E / 02.5; 113.0

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A state of Malaysia

For the river, see Sarawak River. For the ship, see HMS Sarawak (K591).

State in MalaysiaSarawakStateState of SarawakNegeri Sarawak (Malay)

FlagCoat of armsNickname(s): Bumi Kenyalang[1]Land of the HornbillsMotto(s): Bersatu, Berusaha, BerbaktiUnited, Striving, ServingAnthem: Ibu PertiwikuMy Motherland[2]   Sarawak in    MalaysiaOpenStreetMapCoordinates: 2°30′N 113°00′E / 02.5°N 113.0°E / 02.5; 113.0Country MalaysiaSultanate of Sarawak1599Raj of Sarawak24 September 1841Japanese occupation16 September 1941Crown colony1 July 1946Self-governance granted22 July 1963[3][4]Federated into Malaysia16 September 1963[5][6]Capital(and largest city)KuchingDivisions

List

BetongBintuluKapitKuchingLimbangMiriMukahSamarahanSarikeiSerianSibuSri Aman

Government • TypeDominant-party parliamentary representative democracy • Yang di-Pertua NegeriWan Junaidi Tuanku Jaafar • PremierAbang Johari Openg (GPS-PBB)

LegislatureLegislative Assembly (82 seats)Federal representationParliament of Malaysia • Dewan Rakyat seats31 of 222 (14.0%) • Dewan Negara seats2 of 70 (2.9%)

Area[7] • Total124,450 km2 (48,050 sq mi)Highest elevation (Mount Murud)2,424 m (7,953 ft)Population (2023)[8][9] • Total 2,907,500 (5th) • Density23/km2 (60/sq mi)DemonymSarawakianLanguages • OfficialEnglishMalay • Other spoken

Iban

Chinese

Bidayuh

Melanau

Kelabit

ethnic minority languages

Demographics (2023) • Ethnic group[10]

30.2% Iban

23.7% Malay

21.9% Chinese

7.7% Bidayuh

5.1% Melanau

5.5% Other Bumiputera

0.6% Indian/Others

4.3% Non-citizens

 • Religions[8]

50.1% Christianity

34.2% Sunni Islam

12.8% Buddhism

0.2% No religion

0.3% Hinduism

0.1% Bahai

0.1% Others

Time zoneUTC+8 (MST[11])Postal code93xxx[12] to 98xxx[13]Calling code082 to 086[14]ISO 3166 codeMY-13Vehicle registrationQA to QT[15]HDI (2022) 0.824[16]very high · 5thGDP (nominal)2022 • Total $45.405 billion(RM 199.786 billion)[17] (3rd) • Per capita $18,377(RM 80,857)[17] (3rd)GDP (PPP)2022 • Total $88.709 billion (3rd) • Per capita $51,175 (3rd)Driving sideLeftElectricity voltage230 V, 50 HzCurrencyMalaysian ringgit (RM/MYR)WebsiteOfficial website

Sarawak (/səˈrɑːwɒk/ sə-RAH-wok, Malay: [saˈrawaʔ]) is a state[18][19] of Malaysia. The largest among the 13 states, with an area almost equal to that of Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak is located in the region of East Malaysia in northwest Borneo, and is bordered by the Malaysian state of Sabah to the northeast, Kalimantan (the Indonesian portion of Borneo) to the south, and Brunei in the north. The capital city, Kuching, is the largest city in Sarawak, the economic centre of the state, and the seat of the Sarawak state government. Other cities and towns in Sarawak include Miri, Sibu, and Bintulu. As of the 2020 Malaysia census, the population of Sarawak was 2.453 million.[9] Sarawak has an equatorial climate with tropical rainforests and abundant animal and plant species. It has several prominent cave systems at Gunung Mulu National Park. Rajang River is the longest river in Malaysia; Bakun Dam, one of the largest dams in Southeast Asia, is located on one of its tributaries, the Balui River. Mount Murud is the highest point in the state. Sarawak is the only state of Malaysia with a Christian majority.[20]

The earliest known human settlement in Sarawak at the Niah Caves dates back 40,000 years. A series of Chinese ceramics dated from the 8th to 13th century AD was uncovered at the archaeological site of Santubong. The coastal regions of Sarawak came under the influence of the Bruneian Empire in the 16th century. In 1839, James Brooke, a British explorer, arrived in Sarawak. He, and his descendants, governed the state from 1841 to 1946. During World War II, it was occupied by the Japanese for three years. After the war, the last White Rajah, Charles Vyner Brooke, ceded Sarawak to Britain, and in 1946 it became a British Crown Colony. On 22 July 1963, Sarawak was granted self-government by the British and subsequently became one of the founding members of Malaysia, established on 16 September 1963. However, the federation was opposed by Indonesia, leading to a three-year confrontation. The creation of Malaysia also prompted a communist insurgency that lasted until 1990.

The head of state is the Governor, also known as the Yang di-Pertua Negeri, while the head of government is the Premier. Sarawak is divided into administrative divisions and districts, governed by a system that is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and was the earliest state legislature system in Malaysia. Under the Malaysian constitution, Sarawak has greater autonomy than the states in Peninsular Malaysia.

Because of its natural resources, Sarawak specialises in the export of oil and gas, timber and palm oil, but also possesses strong manufacturing, energy and tourism sectors. It is ethnically, culturally, religiously and linguistically diverse; ethnic groups including Iban, Chinese, Malay, Bidayuh, Melanau, Orang Ulu, Indian, Eurasian and Kedayan.[21] English and Malay are the two official languages of the state;[22][23] there is no official religion.[24][25]

Etymology[edit]

The rhinoceros hornbill is the state bird of Sarawak.

The generally-accepted explanation of the state's name is that it is derived from the Sarawak Malay word Serawak or Cerava by Portuguese cartographers in the 16th century, which means antimony.[26] A popular alternative explanation is that it is a contraction of the four Malay words purportedly uttered by Pangeran Muda Hashim (uncle to the Sultan of Brunei), "Saya serah pada awak" (I surrender it to you), when he gave Sarawak to James Brooke, an English explorer in 1841.[26] However, the latter explanation is incorrect: the territory had been named Sarawak before the arrival of James Brooke, and the word awak was not in the vocabulary of Sarawak Malay before the formation of Malaysia.[27]

Sarawak is nicknamed "Land of the Hornbills" (Bumi Kenyalang). These birds are important cultural symbols for the Dayak people, representing the spirit of God. It is also believed that if a hornbill is seen flying over residences, it will bring good luck to the local community. Sarawak has eight of the world's fifty-four species of hornbills, and the Rhinoceros hornbill is the state bird of Sarawak.[28]

History[edit]

Main article: History of Sarawak

Foragers are known to have lived around the west mouth of the Niah Caves (located 110 km (68 mi) southwest of Miri) 40,000 years ago.[29][30] A modern human skull found near the Niah Caves is the oldest human remain found in Malaysia and the oldest modern human skull from Southeast Asia.[29][30][31][32] Chinese ceramics dating to the Tang and Song dynasties (8th to 13th century AD, respectively) found at Santubong (near Kuching) hint at its significance as a seaport.[33]

The settlement known as Vijayapura was a vassal-state to the Buddhist Srivijaya empire and was thought to be located in Borneo's Northwest which flourished in the 7th Century.[34] This alternate Srivijaya referring to Brunei, was known to Arabic sources as "Sribuza".[35] The Arabic author Al Ya'akubi writing in 800 recorded that the kingdom of Musa (Muja, which is old Brunei) was in alliance with the kingdom of Mayd (Either Ma-i or Madja-as in the Philippines), against the Chinese Empire which they waged war against.[36] In the aftermath of the Indian Chola invasion of Srivijaya, Datu Puti lead some dissident datus from Sumatra and Borneo in a rebellion against Rajah Makatunao (Who is named Rajah Tugao in the native Melenau kingdom of Sarawak) who was a Chola appointed local Rajah or the descendant of Seri Maharajah (In Chinese records). The dissidents and their retinue tried to revive Srivijaya in a new country called Madja-as in the Visayas islands (an archipelago named after Srivijaya) in the Philippines. After the 10 Datus established many towns in Panay and Southern Luzon, according to Augustinian Friar Rev. Fr. Santaren recording in the Spanish era of this Pre-Spanish legendary history, that Datu Macatunao or Rajah Makatunao who was the "sultan of the Moros," and a relative of Datu Puti who seized the properties and riches of the ten datus was eventually killed by the warriors named Labaodungon and Paybare, after learning of this injustice from their father-in-law Paiburong, sailed to Odtojan in Borneo where Rajah Makatunaw (Among Madja-as people)/ Rajah Tugao (Among the Melanao) ruled. The warriors sacked the city, killed Makatunaw and his family, retrieved the stolen properties of the 10 datus, enslaved the remaining population of Odtojan, and sailed back to Panay. Labaw Donggon and his wife, Ojaytanayon, later settled in a place called Moroboro.[37] One of the earliest Chinese records of an independent kingdom in Borneo is the 977 AD letter to the Chinese emperor from the ruler of Boni, which some scholars believe to refer to Borneo.[38] The Bruneians regained their independence from Srivijaya due to the onset of a Javanese-Sumatran war.[39] In 1225, the Chinese official Zhao Rukuo reported that Boni had 100 warships to protect its trade, and that there was great wealth in the kingdom.[40] Marco Polo suggested in his memoirs that the Great Khan or the ruler of the Mongol Empire, attempted and failed many times in invading "Great Java" which was the European name for Bruneian controlled Borneo.[41][additional citation(s) needed] In the 1300s the Chinese annals, Nanhai zhi, reported that Brunei invaded or administered Sarawak and Sabah as well as the Philippine kingdoms of Butuan, Sulu, Ma-i (Mindoro), Malilu 麻裏蘆 (present-day Manila), Shahuchong 沙胡重 (present-day Siocon), Yachen 啞陳 (Oton), and 文杜陵 Wenduling (present-day Mindanao),[42] which would regain their independence at a later date.[43]

In the 14th century, the Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Prapanca in 1365, mentioned Barune as the constituent state of Hindu Majapahit,[44] which had to make an annual tribute of 40 katis of camphor. In 1369, Sulu which was also formerly part of Majapahit, had successfully rebelled and then attacked Boni, and had invaded the Northeast Coast of Borneo[45] and afterwards had looted the capital of its treasure and gold including sacking two sacred pearls. A fleet from Majapahit succeeded in driving away the Sulus, but Boni was left weaker after the attack.[46] A Chinese report from 1371 described Boni as poor and totally controlled by Majapahit.[47]

The Bruneian Empire was established in the coastal regions of Sarawak by the mid-15th century,[48] and the Kuching area was known to Portuguese cartographers during the 16th century as Cerava, one of the five great seaports of Borneo.[49][50] It was also during this time that witnessed the birth of the Sultanate of Sarawak, a local kingdom that lasted for almost half a century before being reunited with Brunei in 1641.[51][52] By the early 19th century, the Bruneian Empire was in decline, retaining only a tenuous hold along the coastal regions of Sarawak which were otherwise controlled by semi-independent Malay leaders. Away from the coast, territorial wars were fought between the Iban and a Kenyah-Kayan alliance.[53]

James Brooke, the first White Rajah

The discovery of antimony ore in the Kuching region led Pengiran Indera Mahkota, a representative of the Sultan of Brunei, to increase development in the territory between 1824 and 1830. Increasing antimony production in the region led the Brunei Sultanate to demand higher taxes, which ultimately led to civil unrest.[54] In 1839, Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II (1827–1852) assigned his uncle Pengiran Muda Hashim the task of restoring order but his inability to do so caused him to request the aid of British sailor James Brooke. Brooke's success in quelling the revolt was rewarded with antimony, property and the governorship of Sarawak, which at that time consisted only of a small area centred on Kuching.[55][56]

The Brooke family, later called the White Rajahs, set about expanding the territory they had been ceded.[57]

With expansion came the need for efficient governance and thus, beginning in 1841, Sarawak was separated into the first of its administrative divisions[58] with currency, the Sarawak dollar, beginning circulation in 1858.[59] By 1912, a total of five divisions had been established in Sarawak, each headed by a Resident.[58] The Brooke family generally practised a paternalistic form of government with minimal bureaucracy, but were pressured to establish some form of legal framework. Since they were unfamiliar with local customs, the Brooke government created an advisory Supreme Council, mostly consisting of Malay chiefs, to provide guidance. This council is the oldest state legislative assembly in Malaysia, with the first General Council meeting taking place at Bintulu in 1867.[60] In 1928, a Judicial Commissioner, Thomas Stirling Boyd, was appointed as the first legally trained judge. A similar system relating to matters concerning various Chinese communities was also formed.[61] Members of the local community were encouraged by the Brooke regime to focus on particular functions within the territory: the Ibans and other Dayak people were hired as militia while Malays were primarily administrators. Chinese, both local and immigrant, were mostly employed in plantations,[62] mines and as bureaucrats.[61] Expanding trade led to the formation of the Borneo Company Limited in 1856. The company was involved in a wide range of businesses in Sarawak including trade, banking, agriculture, mineral exploration, and development.[63]

Territorial expansion of the Raj of Sarawak from 1841 to 1905 played a significant role to the present-day boundaries of the modern state of Sarawak.

Between 1853 and 1862, there were a number of uprisings against the Brooke government but all were successfully contained with the aid of local tribes.[61] To guard against future uprisings, a series of forts were constructed to protect Kuching, including Fort Margherita, completed in 1871. By that time Brooke's control of Sarawak was such that defences were largely unnecessary.[64]

Charles Anthoni Brooke succeeded his uncle in 1868 as the next White Rajah. Under his rule, Sarawak gained Limbang and the Baram and Trusan valleys from the Sultan of Brunei, later becoming a protectorate in 1888 with Britain handling foreign affairs but the Brooke government retaining administrative powers.[65] Domestically, Brooke established the Sarawak Museum – the oldest museum in Borneo – in 1891,[64][66] and brokered a peace in Marudi by ending intertribal wars there. Economic development continued, with oil wells drilling from 1910 and the Brooke Dockyard opening two years later. Anthony Brooke, who would become Rajah Muda (heir apparent) in 1939, was born in 1912.[67]

A centenary celebration of Brooke rule in Sarawak was held in 1941. During the celebration, a new constitution was introduced that would limit the power of the Rajah and grant the Sarawak people a greater role in the functioning of government. However, this constitution was never fully implemented due to the Japanese occupation.[68][61][note 1] That same year saw the British withdrawing its air and marine forces defending Sarawak to Singapore. With Sarawak now unguarded, the Brooke regime adopted a scorched earth policy where oil installations in Miri were to be destroyed and the Kuching airfield held as long as possible before being destroyed. Nevertheless, a Japanese invasion force led by Kiyotake Kawaguchi landed in Miri on 16 December 1941 and conquered Kuching on 24 December 1941, with British ground forces retreating to Singkawang in neighbouring Dutch Borneo. After ten weeks of fighting there, the Allied forces surrendered on 1 April 1942.[69] Charles Vyner Brooke, the last Rajah of Sarawak, had already left for Sydney, Australia; his officers were captured by the Japanese and interned at the Batu Lintang camp.[70]

Crowds throng a street in Kuching to witness the arrival of Australian Imperial Force (AIF) on 12 September 1945.

Sarawak remained part of the Empire of Japan for three years and eight months. During this time it was divided into three provinces – Kuching-shu, Sibu-shu, and Miri-shu – each under their respective Provincial Governor. The Japanese otherwise preserved the Brooke administrative structure and appointed the Japanese to important government positions.[71] Allied forces later carried out Operation Semut to sabotage Japanese operations in Sarawak.[72] During the battle of North Borneo, the Australian forces landed at Lutong-Miri area on 20 June 1945 and had penetrated as far as Marudi and Limbang before halting their operations in Sarawak.[73] After the surrender of Japan, the Japanese surrendered to the Australian forces at Labuan on 10 September 1945.[74][75] The following day, the Japanese forces at Kuching surrendered, and the Batu Lintang camp was liberated.[76] Sarawak was immediately placed under British Military Administration and managed by Australian Imperial Forces (AIF) until April 1946.[77][78]

Lacking the resources to rebuild Sarawak after the war, Charles Vyner Brooke decided to cede Sarawak as British Crown Colony[79] and a Cession Bill was put forth in the Council Negri (now Sarawak State Legislative Assembly), which was debated for three days. The bill was passed on 17 May 1946 with a narrow majority (19 versus 16 votes).[80] This caused hundreds of Malay civil servants to resign in protest, sparking an anti-cession movement and the assassination of the second colonial governor of Sarawak, Sir Duncan Stewart.[81] Despite the resistance, Sarawak became a British Crown colony on 1 July 1946.[3] Anthony Brooke opposed the cession of Sarawak to the British Crown,[82] for which he was banished from Sarawak by the colonial government.[61][note 2] He was only allowed to return 17 years later after Sarawak had become part of Malaysia.[83] In 1950 all anti-cession movements in Sarawak ceased after a clamp-down by the colonial government.[53]

Tan Sri Datuk Amar Stephen Kalong Ningkan declaring the formation of the Federation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963

On 27 May 1961, Tunku Abdul Rahman, the prime minister of the Federation of Malaya, announced a plan to form a greater federation together with Singapore, Sarawak, North Borneo and Brunei, to be called Malaysia. On 17 January 1962, the Cobbold Commission was formed to gauge the support of Sarawak and Sabah for the plan; the Commission reported 80 per cent support for federation.[84][85] On 23 October 1962, five political parties in Sarawak formed a united front that supported the formation of Malaysia.[86] Sarawak was officially granted self-government on 22 July 1963,[3][4] and became federated with Malaya, North Borneo (now Sabah), and Singapore to form a federation named Malaysia on 16 September 1963.[87][88] The governments of the Philippines and Indonesia opposed the new federation, as did the Brunei People's Party and Sarawak-based communist groups, and in 1962, the Brunei Revolt broke out.[89] Indonesian President Sukarno responded by deploying armed volunteers and, later, military forces into Sarawak.[90][91] Thousands of Sarawak communist members went into Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo, and underwent training with the Communist Party of Indonesia. The most significant engagement of the confrontation was fought at Plaman Mapu in April 1965. The defeat at Plaman Mapu ultimately resulted in the fall of Sukarno and he was replaced by Suharto as president of Indonesia.[92] Negotiations were restarted between Malaysia and Indonesia and led to the end of the confrontation on 11 August 1966.[93][note 3]

A number of communist groups existed in Sarawak, the first of which, the Sarawak Overseas Chinese Democratic Youth League, formed in 1951.[53][note 4] Another group, the North Kalimantan Communist Party (NKCP) (also known as Clandestine Communist Organisation (CCO) by government sources) was formally set up in 1970.[94] Weng Min Chyuan and Bong Kee Chok were two of the more notable communist leaders involved in the insurgency. As the political scene changed, it grew progressively more difficult for the communists to operate. This led to Bong opening talks with chief minister Abdul Rahman Ya'kub in 1973 and eventually signing an agreement with the government. Weng, who had moved to China in the mid-1960s but nonetheless retained control of the CCO, pushed for a continued armed insurrection against the government in spite of this agreement. The conflict continued mostly in the Rajang Delta region but eventually ended when, on 17 October 1990, the NKCP signed a peace agreement with the Sarawak government.[95][96]

Politics[edit]

Government[edit]

See also: Constitution of the State of Sarawak, Government of Sarawak, Cabinet of Sarawak, Elections in Sarawak, and Sarawak State Legislative Assembly

Composition of the 19th Sarawak State Legislative Assembly

Affiliation

Leader in the Assembly

Status

Current seats (2021election)

Gabungan Parti Sarawak (GPS)

Abang Abdul Rahman Zohari Abang Openg

Government

76

Parti Sarawak Bersatu (PSB)

Wong Soon Koh

Opposition

4

Pakatan Harapan (PH)

Chong Chieng Jen

2

Total

82

Government majority

70

Timeline of political parties in Sarawak

The head of the Sarawak state is the Yang di-Pertua Negeri (also known as TYT or Governor), a largely symbolic position appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King of Malaysia) on the advice of the Malaysian federal government.[97] The position has been held by Wan Junaidi Tuanku Jaafar since 2024.[98] The TYT appoints the Premier, currently held by Abang Johari Openg (GPS),[99] as the head of government. Generally, the leader of the party that commands the majority of the state Legislative Assembly is appointed as the chief minister; democratically elected representatives are known as state assemblymen. The state assembly passes laws on subjects that are not under the jurisdiction of the Parliament of Malaysia such as land administration, employment, forests, immigration, merchant shipping and fisheries. The state government is constituted by the premier, the cabinet ministers and their deputy ministers.[100]

Because the government of Sarawak controls immigration, foreign nationals entering Sarawak receive an additional entry stamp

To protect the interests of the Sarawakians in the Malaysian federation, special safeguards have been included in the Constitution of Malaysia. These include: control over immigration in and out of the state as well as the residence status of non-Sarawakians and Sabahans, limitations on the practice of law to resident lawyers, independence of the Sarawak High Court from the High Court Peninsular Malaysia, a requirement that the Sarawak Chief Minister be consulted prior to the appointment of the chief judge of the Sarawak High Court, the existence of Native Courts in Sarawak and the power to levy sales tax. Natives in Sarawak enjoy special privileges such as quotas and employment in public service, scholarships, university placements, and business permits.[101] Local governments in Sarawak are exempt from local council laws enacted by the Malaysian parliament.[102] This level of autonomy means Sarawak is sometimes referred to as a "region", to differentiate it from less autonomous states.[103]

The State Assembly building is located near the Kuching waterfront.

Major political parties in Sarawak can be divided into three categories: native Sarawak Bumiputera (PBB and PBM), native Sarawak Dayak (PRS, PDP, PBDSB, etc.), and non-Bumiputera (SUPP, PSB, PBK, etc.); Parties, however, may also include members from more than one group.[104] The first political party, the Sarawak United Peoples' Party (SUPP), was established in 1959, followed by the Parti Negara Sarawak (PANAS) in 1960 and the Sarawak National Party (SNAP) in 1961. Other major political parties such as Parti Pesaka Sarawak (PESAKA) appeared by 1962.[53][note 5] These parties later joined the national coalition of the Alliance Party. The Alliance Party (later regrouped into Barisan Nasional) has ruled Sarawak since the formation of Malaysia. The opposition in Sarawak has consistently alleged that the ruling coalition uses various types of vote-buying tactics in order to win elections.[105][note 6][106] Stephen Kalong Ningkan was the first Chief Minister of Sarawak from 1963 to 1966 following his landslide victory in local council elections. However, he was ousted in 1966 by Tawi Sli with the help of the Malaysian federal government, causing the 1966 Sarawak constitutional crisis.[53]

Yang di-Pertua Negeri, Wan Junaidi Tuanku JaafarPremier, Abang Abdul Rahman Zohari Abang Openg

In 1969, the first Sarawak state election was held, with members of the Council Negri being directly elected by the voters. This election marked the beginning of ethnic Melanau domination in Sarawak politics by Abdul Rahman Ya'kub and Abdul Taib Mahmud. In the same year, the North Kalimantan Communist Party (NKCP) which subsequently waged a guerrilla war against the newly elected Sarawak state government, was formed. The party was dissolved after the signing of a peace agreement in 1990.[96] 1973 saw the birth of Parti Pesaka Bumiputera Bersatu (PBB) following a merger of several parties.[107] This party would later become the backbone of the Sarawak BN coalition. In 1978, the Democratic Action Party (DAP) was the first West Malaysia-based party to open its branches in Sarawak.[107] Sarawak originally held state elections together with national parliamentary elections. However, the then chief minister Abdul Rahman Ya'kub delayed the dissolution of the state assembly by a year to prepare for the challenges posed by opposition parties.[105] This made Sarawak the only state in Malaysia to hold state elections separate from the national parliamentary elections since 1979.[108] In 1983, SNAP started to fragment into several splinter parties due to recurrent leadership crises.[109][110] The political climate in the state was stable until the 1987 Ming Court Affair, a political coup initiated by Abdul Taib Mahmud's uncle to topple the Taib-led BN coalition. However, the coup was unsuccessful and Taib retained his position as chief minister.[111]

Since the 2006 state election, the Democractic Action Party (DAP) has derived the majority of its support from urban centres and became the largest opposition party in Sarawak.[112] In 2010, it formed the Pakatan Rakyat coalition with Parti Keadilan Rakyat (PKR) and Parti Islam Se-Malaysia (PAS); the latter two parties had become active in Sarawak between 1996 and 2001.[113] Sarawak is the only state in Malaysia where West Malaysia-based component parties in the BN coalition, especially the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), have not been active in state politics.[114]

On 12 June 2018, the Sarawak Parties Alliance was formed by the BN parties in the state in the aftermath of an historic meeting of party leaders in Kuching, where they decided that in light of the BN defeat in the 2018 Malaysian general election and the changing national situation and a new government, the parties will leave the BN altogether.[115] In conjunction with the celebration of Malaysia Day in 2018 under the new government, Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad has promised to restore the status of Sarawak (together with Sabah) as an equal partner to Malaya, where all three parties (and then, Singapore) formed Malaysia in accordance to the Malaysia Agreement.[116][117] However, through the process of the proposed amendment to the Constitution of Malaysia in 2019, the bill for the amendment failed to pass following the failure to reach two-thirds majority support (148 votes) in the Parliament with only 138 agreed with the move while 59 abstained from the voting.[118][119] On 14 December 2021, the proposed amendment was passed in the Parliament unanimously with 199 votes in favour, and 21 MPs absent from the 6-hour long debate.[120]

Administrative divisions[edit]

Main articles: Divisions of Malaysia, Districts of Malaysia, and List of local governments in Malaysia

Unlike states in Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak is divided into 12 divisions, each headed by an appointed resident.[97][121][122]

Administrative divisions of Sarawak

Limbang

Serian

Betong

Kuching

Kapit

Miri

Simanggang

Sibu

Sarikei

Kota Samarahan

Mukah

Bintulu

  First Division

  Second Division

  Third Division

  Fourth Division

  Fifth Division

UPI code[123]

Divisions

Population(2020 census)

Area(km2)

Seat

Districts (subdistricts)

Local governments

1301

Kuching

812,900

1,794.18

Kuching

3 (5)

5

1302

Sri Aman

111,500

5,466.25

Simanggang

2 (5)

2

1303

Sibu

350,700

8,278.3

Sibu

3

3

1304

Miri

433,800

26,777

Miri

5 (11)

3

1305

Limbang

103,100

7,790

Limbang

2 (5)

2

1306

Sarikei

139,500

4,332.4

Sarikei

4

2

1307

Kapit

155,900

38,934

Kapit

4 (6)

3

1308

Samarahan

187,500

2,927.5

Kota Samarahan

3 (5)

2

1309

Bintulu

266,300

12,166.2

Bintulu

3

1

1310

Betong

129,000

4,180.8

Betong

4 (9)

2

1311

Mukah

134,900

6,997.61

Mukah

5 (8)

2

1312

Serian

105,800

2,039.9

Serian

2 (3)

1

Note: Population data for Serian Division not including Siburan subdistrict which was formerly a part of Kuching Division.

On 26 November 2015, it was announced that the Kuching Division district of Serian would become Sarawak's 12th division and it had officiated by Adenan Satem at its formal creation on 11 April 2015.[124]

A division is divided into districts, each headed by a district officer, which are in turn divided into sub-districts, each headed by a Sarawak Administrative Officer (SAO). There is also one development officer for each division and district to implement development projects. The state government appoints a headman (known as ketua kampung or penghulu) for each village.[97][121] There are a total of 26 sub-districts in Sarawak all under the jurisdiction of the Sarawak Ministry of Local Government and Community Development.[125] The list of divisions, districts, sub-districts and their local authorities is shown in the table below:[126]

Division

District

Subdistrict

Local government

Kuching

Kuching

Padawan

Kuching North City Hall

Kuching South City Council

Padawan Municipal Council

Bau

Bau District Council

Lundu

Sematan

Lundu District Council

Samarahan

Samarahan

Kota Samarahan Municipal Council

Asajaya

Sadong Jaya

Simunjan

Simunjan District Council

Gedong

Sebuyau

Serian[124]

Serian

Balai Ringin

Serian District Council

Siburan

Tebedu

Sri Aman

Simanggang

Sri Aman District Council

Lingga

Pantu

Lubok Antu

Engkilili

Lubok Antu District Council

Betong

Betong

Spaoh

Betong District Council

Debak

Pusa

Maludam

Saratok

Nanga Budu

Saratok District Council

Kabong

Roban

Sarikei

Sarikei

Sarikei District Council

Meradong

Maradong Julau District Council

Julau

Pakan

Mukah

Mukah

Balingian

Dalat Mukah District Council

Dalat

Oya

Matu

Igan

Matu Daro District Council

Daro

Tanjung Manis

Sibu

Sibu

Sibu Municipal Council

Sibu Rural District Council

Selangau

Kanowit

Kanowit District Council

Kapit

Kapit

Nanga Merit

Kapit District Council

Song

Belaga

Sungai Asap

Bukit Mabong

Bintulu

Bintulu

Bintulu Development Authority

Sebauh

Tatau

Miri

Miri

Bario

Miri City Council

Subis

Niah-Suai

Subis District Council

Marudi

Mulu

Marudi District Council

Beluru

Lapok

Telang Usan

Long Lama

Long Bedian

Limbang

Limbang

Nanga Medamit

Limbang District Council

Lawas

Sundar

Lawas District Council

Trusan

Security[edit]

Military[edit]

The first paramilitary armed forces in Sarawak, a regiment formed by the Brooke regime in 1862, were known as the Sarawak Rangers.[127] The regiment, renowned for its jungle tracking skills, served in the campaign to end the intertribal wars in Sarawak. It also engaged in guerrilla warfare against the Japanese, in the Malayan Emergency (in West Malaysia) and the Sarawak Communist Insurgency against the communists. Following the formation of Malaysia, the regiment was absorbed into the Malaysian military forces and is now known as the Royal Ranger Regiment.[128]

In 1888, Sarawak, together with neighbouring North Borneo, and Brunei, became British protectorates, and the responsibility for foreign policy was handed over to the British in exchange for military protection.[65] Since the formation of Malaysia, the Malaysian federal government has been solely responsible for foreign policy and military forces in the country.[129][130]

Territorial disputes[edit]

See also: Territorial disputes in the South China Sea

Several border disputes between Malaysia and its neighbouring countries concern Sarawak. Land and maritime disputes exist with Brunei.[131] In 2009, Malaysian prime minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi claimed that in a meeting with Sultan of Brunei, Brunei agreed to drop its claim over Limbang.[132] This was however denied by the second Foreign Minister of Brunei Lim Jock Seng, stating the issue was never discussed during the meeting.[133] James Shoal (Betting Serupai) and the Luconia Shoals (Betting Raja Jarum/Patinggi Ali), islands in the South China Sea, fall within Sarawak's exclusive economic zone, but concerns have been raised about Chinese incursions.[134][135][136] There are also several Sarawak–Kalimantan border issues with Indonesia.[137]

Geography[edit]

Julan waterfall (located at Usun Apau Plieran) is the highest waterfall in Sarawak[138]

The total land area of Sarawak is nearly 124,450 km2 (48,050 sq mi),[7] making up 37.5 per cent of the total area of Malaysia, and lies between the northern latitudes 0° 50′ and 5° and eastern longitudes 109° 36′ and 115° 40′ E.[139] Its 750 km (470 mi) of coastline is interrupted in the north by about 150 km (93 mi) of Bruneian coast.[140] A total of its 45.5 km (28.3 mi) coastline have been eroding.[141] In 1961, Sarawak including neighbouring Sabah, which had been included in the International Maritime Organization (IMO) through the participation of the United Kingdom, became joint associate members of the IMO.[142] Sarawak is separated from Kalimantan Borneo by ranges of high hills and mountains that are part of the central mountain range of Borneo. These become loftier to the north, and are highest near the source of the Baram River at the steep Mount Batu Lawi and Mount Mulu. Mount Murud is the highest point in Sarawak.[140]

Sarawak has a tropical geography with an equatorial climate and experiences two monsoon seasons: a northeast monsoon and a southwest monsoon. The northeast monsoon occurs between November and February, bringing heavy rainfall while the southwest monsoon, which occurs between March and October, brings somewhat less rainfall. The climate is stable throughout the year except for the two monsoons, with average daily temperature varying between 23 °C (73 °F) in the morning to 32 °C (90 °F) in the afternoon at coastal areas. Miri has the lowest average temperatures in comparison to other major towns in Sarawak and has the longest daylight hours (more than six hours a day), while other areas receive sunshine for five to six hours a day. Humidity is usually high, exceeding 68 per cent, with annual rainfall varying between 330 cm (130 in) and 460 cm (180 in) for up to 220 days a year.[139] At highland areas, the temperature can vary from 16 °C (61 °F) to 25 °C (77 °F) during the day and as low as 11 °C (52 °F) during the night.[143]

Sarawak is divided into three ecoregions. The coastal region is rather low-lying and flat with large areas of swamp and other wet environments. Beaches in Sarawak include Pasir Panjang[144] and Damai beaches in Kuching,[145] Tanjung Batu beach in Bintulu,[146] and Tanjung Lobang[147] and Hawaii beaches in Miri.[148] Hilly terrain accounts for much of the inhabited land and is where most of the cities and towns are found. The ports of Kuching and Sibu are built some distance from the coast on rivers while Bintulu and Miri are close to the coastline where the hills stretch right to the South China Sea. The third region is the mountainous region along the Sarawak–Kalimantan border, where a number of villages such as Bario, Ba'kelalan, and Usun Apau Plieran are located.[140] A number of rivers flow through Sarawak, with the Sarawak River being the main river flowing through Kuching. The Rajang River is the longest river in Malaysia, measuring 563 km (350 mi) including its tributary, Balleh River. To the north, the Baram, Limbang and Trusan Rivers drain into the Brunei Bay.[140]

The Rajang River is the longest river in Malaysia

Sarawak can be divided into two geological zones: the Sunda Shield, which extends southwest from the Batang Lupar River (near Sri Aman) and forms the southern tip of Sarawak, and the geosyncline region, which extends northeast to the Batang Lupar River, forming the central and northern regions of Sarawak. The oldest rock type in southern Sarawak is schist formed during the Carboniferous and Lower Permian times, while the youngest igneous rock in this region, andesite, can be found at Sematan. Geological formation of the central and northern regions started during the late Cretaceous period. Other types of stone that can be found in central and northern Sarawak are shale, sandstone, and chert.[139] The Miri Division in eastern Sarawak is the region of Neogene strata containing organic rich rock formations which are the prolific oil and gas reserves. The rocks enriched in organic components are mudstones in Lambir, Miri and Tukau Formations of Middle Miocene-Lower Pliocene age.[149] Significant quantities of Sarawak soil are lithosols, up to 60 per cent, and podsols, around 12 per cent, while abundant alluvial soil is found in coastal and riverine regions. 12 per cent of Sarawak is covered with peat swamp forest.[139] Limestone with well-developed karst topography and cave systems is found scattered from west to east Sarawak, but concentrated in certain regions such as in the Bau district in the west and southwards near the Kalimantan border.[150]

There are thirty national parks,[151] among which are Niah with its eponymous caves,[152] the highly developed ecosystem around Lambir Hills,[153] and the World Heritage Site of Gunung Mulu.[154][155] The last contains Sarawak Chamber, one of the world's largest underground chambers,[156] Deer Cave, the largest cave passage in the world,[157] and Clearwater Cave, the longest cave system in Southeast Asia.[158][159]

Landscapes of Sarawak

Pinnacles at Gunung Mulu National Park

The vegetations at the summit of Mount Murud

South China Sea view from Sarawak

Parts of the Bako National Park

Biodiversity[edit]

See also: Fauna of Borneo, Deforestation in Borneo, and Sarawak Biodiversity Centre

Sarawak contains large tracts of tropical rainforest with diverse plant species,[160] which has led to a number of them being studied for medicinal properties.[161] Mangrove and nipah forests lining its estuaries comprise 2% of its forested area, peat swamp forests along other parts of its coastline cover 16%, Kerangas forest covers 5% and Dipterocarpaceae forests cover most mountainous areas. The major trees found in estuary forests include bako and nibong, while those in the peat swamp forests include ramin (Gonystylus bancanus), meranti (Shorea), and medang jongkong (Dactylocladus stenostachys).[139]

An orangutan peeling a banana at Semenggoh Wildlife Reserve.

Animal species are also highly varied, with 185 species of mammals, 530 species of birds, 166 species of snakes, 104 species of lizards, and 113 species of amphibians, of which 19 per cent of the mammals, 6 per cent of the birds, 20 per cent of the snakes and 32 per cent of the lizards are endemic. These species are largely found in Totally Protected Areas. There are over 2,000 tree species in Sarawak. Other plants includes 1,000 species of orchids, 757 species of ferns, and 260 species of palm.[162] The state is the habitat of endangered animals, including the borneo pygmy elephant, proboscis monkey, orangutans and Sumatran rhinoceroses.[163] Matang Wildlife Centre, Semenggoh Nature Reserve, and Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary[164] are noted for their orangutan protection programmes.[165][166] Talang–Satang National Park is notable for its turtle conservation initiatives.[167] Birdwatching is a common activity in various national parks such as Gunung Mulu National Park, Lambir Hills National Park,[168] and Similajau National Park.[169] Miri–Sibuti National Park is known for its coral reefs[170] and Gunung Gading National Park for its Rafflesia flowers.[171] Bako National Park, the oldest national park in Sarawak, is known for its 275 proboscis monkeys,[172] and Padawan Pitcher Garden for its various carnivorous pitcher plants.[173] In 1854, Alfred Russel Wallace visited Sarawak. A year later, he formulated the "Sarawak Law" which foreshadowed the formulation of his (and Darwin's) theory of evolution by natural selection three years later.[174]

The Sarawak state government has enacted several laws to protect its forests and endangered wildlife species. Some of the protected species are the orangutan, green sea turtle, flying lemur, and piping hornbill. Under the Wild Life Protection Ordinance 1998, Sarawak natives are given permissions to hunt for a restricted range of wild animals in the jungles but should not possess more than 5 kg (11 lb) of meat.[175] The Sarawak Forest Department was established in 1919 to conserve forest resources in the state.[176] Following international criticism of the logging industry in Sarawak, the state government decided to downsize the Sarawak Forest Department and created the Sarawak Forestry Corporation in 1995.[177][178] The Sarawak Biodiversity Centre was set up in 1997 for the conservation, protection, and sustainable development of biodiversity in the state.[179]

Conservation issues[edit]

A logging camp along the Rajang River

Sarawak's rain forests are primarily threatened by the logging industry and palm oil plantations.[180] The issue of human rights of the Penan and deforestation in Sarawak became an international environmental issue when Swiss activist Bruno Manser visited Sarawak regularly between 1984 and 2000.[181] Deforestation has affected the life of indigenous tribes, especially the Penan, whose livelihood is heavily dependent on forest produce. This led to several blockades by indigenous tribes during the 1980s and 1990s against logging companies encroaching on their lands.[182] Indeed, illegal logging in particular has decimated the forest regions indigenous populations depend on for their livelihoods, depleting fish, wildlife, but also traditional medicinal herbs and construction staples like Palm.[183] There have also been cases where Native Customary Rights (NCR) lands have been given to timber and plantation companies without the permission of the locals.[184] The indigenous people have resorted to legal means to reinstate their NCR. In 2001 the High Court of Sarawak fully reinstated the NCR land claimed by the Rumah Nor people, but this was overturned partially in 2005. However, this case has served as a precedent, leading to more NCR being upheld by the high court in the following years.[185][186] Sarawak's mega-dam policies, such as the Bakun Dam and Murum Dam projects, have submerged thousands of hectares of forest and displaced thousands of indigenous people.[187][188] Since 2013, the proposed Baram Dam project has been delayed due to ongoing protests from local indigenous tribes.[189] Since 2014, the Sarawak government under chief minister Adenan Satem started to take action against illegal logging in the state and to diversify the economy of the state.[190] Through the course of 2016 over 2 million acres of forest, much of it in orangutan habitats, were declared protected areas.[191]

Sources vary as to Sarawak's remaining forest cover: former chief minister Abdul Taib Mahmud declared that it fell from 70% to 48% between 2011 and 2012, the Sarawak Forest Department and the Ministry of Resource Planning and Environment both held that it remained at 80% in 2012,[192][193] and Wetlands International reported that it fell by 10% between 2005 and 2010, 3.5 times faster than the rest of Asia combined.[194]

Economy[edit]

Main article: Economy of Sarawak

Sarawak GDP share by sector (2021)[195]

  Services (38.1%)  Manufacturing (24.9%)  Mining & Quarrying (20.6%)  Agriculture (14%)  Construction (4.9%)  Import Duties (0.3%)

An LNG port at Bintulu, Sarawak

Historically, Sarawak's economy was stagnant during the rule of previous three white Rajahs. After the formation of Malaysia, Sarawak GDP growth rate has risen due to increase in petroleum output and the rise in global petroleum prices. However, the state economy is less diversified and still heavily dependent upon the export of primary commodities when compared to Malaysia overall. The per capita GDP in Sarawak was lower than the national average from 1970 to 1990.[196] As of 2021, GDP per capita for Sarawak stands at RM 65,971 (US$ 15,173),[9] which is the third highest in Malaysia. However, the urban-rural income gap remained a major problem in Sarawak.[197]

Sarawak is abundant in natural resources, and primary industries such as mining, agriculture, and forestry accounted for 32.8% of its economy in 2013.[198] It also specialises in the manufacture of food and beverages, wood-based and rattan products, basic metal products, and petrochemicals,[126] as well as cargo and air services and tourism.[198]

The state's gross domestic product (GDP) grew by 40.5% per year on average from 2010 to 2021,[199] but became very more volatile later on, ranging from −3.0% in 2009 to 35.0% in 2021. Sarawak contributed 9.5% of Malaysia's GDP in the nine years leading up to 2020, making it the third largest contributor after Selangor and Kuala Lumpur.[198] From 2015 to 2021, the oil and gas industry accounted for 55.2% of the Sarawak government's revenue. It attracted RM 80 billion (US$ 17.85 billion) in foreign investments, with 95% going to the Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE), the second largest economic corridor in Malaysia.[198]

As of 2021, Sarawak is producing 2,800,000 barrel of oil equivalent every day in 150 oil and gas producing fields.[200][failed verification] However, the export-oriented economy is dominated by liquefied natural gas (LNG), which accounts for more than half of total exports. Crude petroleum accounts for 45.1%, while palm oil, sawlogs, and sawn timber account for 12.0% collectively.[198] The state receives a 5% royalty from Petronas over oil explorations in its territorial waters.[201] Most of the oil and gas deposits are located offshore next to Bintulu and Miri at Balingian basin, Baram basin, and around Luconia Shoals.[202]

Sarawak is one of the world's largest exporters of tropical hardwood timber, constituting 65% of the total Malaysian log exports in 2000. The last United Nations statistics in 2001 estimated Sarawak's sawlog exports at an average of 14,109,000 m3 (498,300,000 cu ft) per year between 1996 and 2000.[203]

In 1955, OCBC became the first foreign bank to operate in Sarawak, with other overseas banks following suit.[204] Other notable Sarawak-based companies include Cahya Mata Sarawak Berhad, Naim Holdings, and Rimbunan Hijau.[205]

Energy[edit]

Turbines inside the Bakun Dam power house. The dam is the main source for electric energy in Sarawak.

Electricity in Sarawak, supplied by the state-owned Sarawak Energy Berhad (SEB),[206] is primarily sourced from traditional coal fired power plants and thermal power stations using LNG,[206][207] but diesel based sources and hydroelectricity are also utilised. There are 3 hydroelectric dams as of 2015[update] at Batang Ai,[208] Bakun,[209] and Murum,[210] with several others under construction.[208] In early 2016, SEB signed Malaysia's first energy export deal to supply electricity to neighbouring West Kalimantan in Indonesia.[211]

In 2008, SCORE was established as a framework to develop the energy sector in the state, specifically the Murum, Baram, and Baleh Dams as well as potential coal-based power plants,[212] and 10 high priority industries out to 2030.[213][214] The Regional Corridor Development Authority is the government agency responsible for managing SCORE.[215] The entire central region of Sarawak is covered under SCORE, including areas such as Samalaju (near Bintulu), Tanjung Manis, and Mukah.[216] Samalaju will be developed as an industrial park,[217] with Tanjung Manis as a halal food hub,[218] and Mukah as the administrative centre for SCORE with a focus on resource-based research and development.[219]

Tourism[edit]

French Romani Manouche band performing during Rainforest World Music Festival 2006

Tourism plays a major role in the economy of Sarawak and contributed 7.9% of the state's GDP in 2016.[220]

Foreign visitors to Sarawak are predominantly from Brunei, Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Germany, Australia, Belgium, South Korea, and United Kingdom.[221] A number of different organisations, both state and private, are involved in the promotion of tourism in Sarawak: the Sarawak Tourism Board is the state body responsible for tourism promotion in the state, various private tourism groups are united under the Sarawak Tourism Federation, and the Sarawak Convention Bureau is responsible for attracting conventions, conferences, and corporate events which are held in the Borneo Convention Centre in Kuching.[222] The public and private bodies in Sarawak hold a biannual event to award the Sarawak Hornbill Tourism Award, an award for achievements within various categories, to recognise businesses and individuals for their efforts in the development of tourism within the state.[223]

The Rainforest World Music Festival is the region's primary musical event, attracting more than 50,000 people annually.[224] Other events that are held regularly in Sarawak are the Anugerah Seri Angkasa (ASA), ASEAN International Film Festival, Borneo Music Festival Live, Borneo Jazz Festival, Borneo Cultural Festival, and Borneo International Kite Festival.[222] Major shopping complexes in Sarawak include The Spring, Boulevard, VivaCity, Plaza Merdeka, City One, and AEON shopping malls in Kuching,[225] Bintang Megamall, Boulevard, Imperial Mall, and Miri Plaza shopping malls in Miri[226] and NAIM Bintulu Paragon Street Mall, The Spring, Boulevard Shopping Mall, Crown Pacific Mall, Commerce Square Mall, Times Square Megamall, and Parkcity Mall in Bintulu.

Sarawak tourist arrival statistics[227][228][229][220][221][230]

Key tourism indicators

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

Foreign arrivals (millions)

1.897

2.343

2.635

2.665

2.996

2.497

2.258

2.639

2.113

2.082

Domestic arrivals (West Malaysia and Sabah) (millions)

1.373

1.452

1.434

1.707

1.862

2.020

2.402

2.217

2.318

2.560

Total arrivals (millions)

3.271

3.795

4.069

4.372

4.858

4.517

4.661

4.856

4.431

4.662

Total tourism receipts, billions (RM)

6.618

7.914

8.573

9.588

10.686

9.870

8.370

8.590

7.960

N/A

Total tourism receipts, billions (equivalent USD)

1.489

2.374

2.786

2.876

3.206

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

Infrastructure[edit]

Infrastructure development in Sarawak is overseen by the Ministry of Infrastructure Development and Transportation, successor to the Ministry of Infrastructure Development and Communications (MIDCom) after it was renamed in 2016.[231] Despite this ministerial oversight, infrastructure in Sarawak remains relatively underdeveloped compared to Peninsular Malaysia.[232]

In 2009, 94% of urban Sarawak was supplied with electricity, but only 67% of rural areas had electricity.[233] However, this had increased to 91% by 2014.[234] According to a 2015 article, household internet penetration in Sarawak was lower than Malaysian national average, 41.2% versus 58.6%, with 58.5% of internet use being in urban areas and 29.9% in rural areas. In comparison, mobile telecommunication uptake in Sarawak was comparable to the national average, 93.3% against a national average of 94.2%, and on par with neighbouring Sabah.[235] Mobile telecommunication infrastructure, specifically broadcast towers, are built and managed by Sacofa Sdn Bhd (Sacofa Private Limited), which enjoys a monopoly in Sarawak after the company was granted a 20-year exclusivity deal on the provision, maintenance and leasing of towers in the state.[236]

A number of different bodies manage the supply of water depending on their region of responsibility, including the Kuching Water Board (KWB), Sibu Water Board (SWB), and LAKU Management Sdn Bhd, which handle water supply in Miri, Bintulu, and Limbang respectively,[237] and the Rural Water Supply Department managing the water supply for the remaining areas.[238] As of 2014[update], 82% of the rural areas have a fresh water supply.[234]

Broadcasting[edit]

Sarawak launched its radio service on 7 June 1954, which became a part of Radio Malaysia when it joined Malaysia in 1963 and later part of the bigger Radio Televisyen Malaysia (RTM) in 1969 when the nation's radio and television operations merged.[239] It did not have television service until 30 August 1975, when RTM TV1 was made available for East Malaysian viewers.[240] RTM has six branches in the state - a main office in capital city Kuching and five other offices in Simanggang, Sibu, Bintulu, Miri and Limbang. The main office produces news and shows for RTM's television channels and operates four state radio channels, namely Sarawak FM, Red FM and Wai FM Iban and Bidayuh networks, whereas five other offices operate district radio channels such as Sri Aman FM, Sibu FM, Bintulu FM, Miri FM and Limbang FM. On 7 April 1998, NTV7 was launched by Sarawakian businessman Mohd Effendi Norwawi under the ownership of Natseven TV Sdn Bhd. Before its acquisition by Media Prima Berhad in 2005, it had a studio in the state capital. However, Sarawak didn't have its own true TV station until 10 October 2020, when it launched TVS, thus becoming the first region in Malaysia to own its TV station. It is currently available in Astro, Astro NJOI and myFreeview (MYTV Broadcasting) and available in 4 languages: Malay, English, Iban and Chinese (Mandarin). Commercial radio channels based in the state include Cats FM and TEA FM, respectively launched on 8 August 1996 and 1 August 2015.[citation needed]

Transportation[edit]

Kuching International Airport terminal

Much like many former British territories, Sarawak uses a dual carriageway with the left-hand traffic rule.[241] As of 2013, Sarawak had a total of 32,091 km (19,940 mi) of connected roadways, with 18,003 km (11,187 mi) being paved state routes, 8,313 km (5,165 mi) of dirt tracks, 4,352 km (2,704 mi) of gravel roads, and 1,424 km (885 mi) of paved federal highway. The primary route in Sarawak is the Pan Borneo Highway, which runs from Sematan, Sarawak, through Brunei to Tawau, Sabah.[242] Despite being a major highway, the condition of the road is poor leading to numerous accidents and fatalities.[243] 16 billion ringgit worth of contracts were awarded to a number of local companies in December 2016 to add new vehicle and pedestrian bridges, interchanges and bus shelters to the highway as part of a multi-phase project.[244]

A railway line existed before the war, but the last remnants of the line were dismantled in 1959.[245] A rail project was announced in 2008 to be in line with the transport needs of SCORE, but as yet no construction work has begun despite an anticipated completion date in 2015.[246] In 2017, the Sarawak government proposed a light rail system (Kuching Line) connecting Kuching, Samarahan and Serian divisions with anticipated completion in 2020.[247] Currently, buses are the primary mode of public transportation in Sarawak with interstate services connecting the state to Sabah, Brunei, and Pontianak (Indonesia).[237]

Sarawak is served by a number of airports with Kuching International Airport, located south west of Kuching, being the largest. Flights from Kuching are mainly to Kuala Lumpur but also to Johor Bahru, Penang, Sabah, Kelantan, Singapore and Pontianak, Indonesia. A second airport at Miri serves flights primarily to other Malaysian states as well as services to Singapore. Other smaller airports such as Sibu Airport, Bintulu Airport, Mukah Airport, Marudi Airport, Mulu Airport, and Limbang Airport provide domestic services within Malaysia. There are also a number of remote airstrips serving rural communities in the state.[242] Three airlines serve flights in Sarawak, Malaysia Airlines, Air Asia, and MASwings all of which use Kuching Airport as their main hub.[248] The state owned Hornbill Skyways is an aviation company that largely provides private chartered flights and flight services for public servants.[249]

Bintulu International Container Terminal (BICT) at Bintulu seaport

Sarawak has four primary ports located at Kuching, Sibu, Bintulu, and Miri.[237] The busiest seaport at Bintulu is under the jurisdiction of the Malaysian federal government and mainly handles LNG products and regular cargo. The remaining ports are under the respective state port authorities. The combined throughput of the four primary ports was 61.04 million freight weight tonnes (FWT) in 2013.[242] Sarawak has 55 navigable river networks with a combined length of 3,300 km (2,100 mi). For centuries, the rivers of Sarawak have been a primary means of transport as well as a route for timber and other agricultural goods moving downriver for export at the country's major ports. Sibu port, located 113 km (70 mi) from the river's mouth, is the main hub along the Rajang River mainly handling timber products. However, the throughput of Sibu port has declined over the years after Tanjung Manis Industrial Port (TIMP) began operating further downriver.[242]

Healthcare[edit]

See also: List of hospitals in Malaysia

The Sarawak General Hospital

Health care in provided by three major government hospitals, Sarawak General Hospital, Sibu Hospital, and Miri Hospital,[250] as well as numerous district hospitals,[251] public health clinics, 1Malaysia clinics, and rural clinics.[252] Sarawak Heart Centre was set up in 2011 in Kota Samarahan to provide cardiology services to patients.[253] Besides government-owned hospitals and clinics, there are several private hospitals in Sarawak[254] such as the Normah Medical Specialists Centre, Timberland Medical Specialists Centre,[255] and Sibu Specialist Medical Centre. Hospitals in Sarawak typically provide the full gamut of health care options, from triage to palliative care for the terminally ill. In 1994, Sarawak General Hospital Department of Radiotherapy, Oncology & Palliative Care instituted an at-home care, or hospice care, program for cancer patients. The non profit Sarawak Hospice Society was established in 1998 to promote this program.[256]

In comparison to the number of other medical facilities, mental health is only serviced by a single facility, Hospital Sentosa.[257] This abundance of medical services has made Sarawak a medical tourism destination for visitors from neighbouring Brunei and Indonesia.[258]

In comparison to the prevalence of health services in urban regions, much of rural Sarawak is only accessible by river transport, which limits access.[259] Remote rural areas that are beyond the operating areas of health clinics, about 12 km (7.5 mi),[260] and inaccessible by land or river are serviced by a monthly flying doctor service, which was established in 1973.[261]

A village health promoter program, where volunteers are provided with basic medical training, was established in 1981 but difficulty in providing medical supplies to remote villages, as well as a lack of incentive, resulted in a decline of the program.[262] A variety of traditional medicine practices are still being used by the various communities in Sarawak to supplement modern medical practices but this practice is also declining.[263] However, since 2004, there has been a resurgence in traditional medicine in Malaysia resulting in the establishment of a traditional medicine division within the Ministry of Health. A 2006 government program to have integrated hospitals led to numerous universities starting programs to teach traditional medicine and major hospitals, including Sarawak General Hospital, providing traditional therapies.[264]

Education[edit]

Main articles: List of schools in Sarawak and List of universities in Malaysia

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) chancellory building

Education in Malaysia falls under the remit of two federal ministries; the Malaysian Ministry of Education is responsible for primary and secondary education,[265] while the Ministry of Higher Education has oversight over public universities, polytechnic and community colleges.[266] Early childhood education is not directly controlled by the Ministry of Education as it does with primary and secondary education. However, the ministry does oversee the licensing of private kindergartens, the main form of early childhood education, in accordance with the National Pre-School Quality Standard, which was launched in 2013.[267]

Around the time of Federation, overall literacy in Sarawak was quite low. In 1960, the overall literacy rate was 25%, with a heavy slant in the literacy rate towards the Chinese population, 53%, compared with that of indigenous peoples which was substantially lower, only 17%.[268] By 2007, overall literacy in adults aged 15 and over had significantly increased to 92.3% and in 2012, this had climbed to 96%.[269]

There were 1480 schools in Sarawak in 2014, of which 1271 were primary, 202 were secondary and 7 were vocational/technical secondary schools.[270] Among these are a number of schools that date from the Brooke era, including St. Thomas's School Kuching (1848), St Mary's School Kuching (1848), and St Joseph's School Kuching (1882).[271] As well as government schools, there are four international schools: Tunku Putra School, a primary and secondary school offering national and Cambridge curricula, Lodge International School, which is also open to local students and uses both the British National and Cambridge systems, Kidurong International School, which is owned by Shell and offers primary education mainly to children of employees but local children may enter depending on space availability, and Tenby International School, which opened in 2014 and is open to both local and expatriate children.[272] There are also 14 Chinese independent secondary schools in Sarawak that teach in Chinese rather than English or Malay.[273] Previously, only Chinese students were enrolled in these schools, but mobility of the workforce has led to increasing turnover of students as parents move to other areas for employment.[274][275] This has led to an increasing number of Bumiputera students being enrolled in Chinese primary and preschools.[276]

Sarawak is home to three public universities – Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Universiti Teknologi Mara at Kota Samarahan, and Universiti Putra Malaysia – as well as the private Curtin University, Malaysia and Swinburne University of Technology Sarawak Campus. The latter two are satellite campuses of Curtin University in Perth and Swinburne University of Technology in Melbourne, Australia.[265]

With the establishment of SCORE and the associated potential of 1.6 million more jobs by 2030,[272] the state government allocated RM1 billion from 2016 to 2020 to a Skills Development Fund for vocational education.[277] In 2015, Petronas provided vocational scholarships to 150 underprivileged Sarawak students as part of its Vocational Institution Sponsorship and Training Assistance program,[278] although it had been criticised for under-representing local students in its previous allocations;[279] the company also provided support to other Sarawak vocational education centres.[280]

Demographics[edit]

Main article: Demographics of Sarawak

Ethnic groups in Sarawak (2021)[10]

Ethnic

Percent

Bumiputera

 

72.1%

Chinese

 

22.6%

Indian

 

0.2%

Others

 

0.3%

Non-citizens

 

4.8%

Sub-ethnic groups of Dayak in Sarawak (2021)[10]

  Iban (70.5%)  Bidayuh (19.2%)  Orang Ulu (10.3%)

The 2020 census of Malaysia reported a population of 2,453,677 in Sarawak,[8] making it the fifth most populous state.[281] However, this population is distributed over a large area resulting in Sarawak having the lowest population density in the country with only 20 people per km2. The average population growth rate of 1.8%, from 2000 to 2010, is very close to the national average of 2.0%.[126] In 2014, 58% of the population resided in urban areas with the remainder in rural areas, but over the next 10 years it is predicted that the urban population would rise to 65%.[282] As of 2011[update], the crude birth rate in Sarawak was 16.3 per 1000 individuals, the crude death rate was 4.3 per 1000 population, and the infant mortality rate was 6.5 per 1000 live births.[283]

Urban populations consist predominantly of Malays, Melanaus, Chinese, and a small population of urban Ibans and Bidayuhs who migrated from their home villages seeking employment.[284] The latter two are among the more than 40 sub-ethnic groups of Sarawak, many of whom still inhabit remote areas and are referred to as Orang Asal.[285] The Orang Asal, and Malays, of Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak and Sabah are referred to collectively as Bumiputera (son of the soil). This classification grants them special privileges in education, jobs, finance, and political positions.[286]

The registration for, and issuing of, national identity cards, a legally required document for accessing various services, to these remote tribes has been problematic for many years,[287] and in the past had even resulted in a large number of people from the Penan ethnic group being rendered effectively stateless.[288] In recent years, this issue has seen progressive improvement with the implementation of systems such as mobile registration units.[289]

Sarawak has a large immigrant work force with as many as 150,000 registered foreign migrant workers working as domestic workers or in plantation, manufacturing, construction, services and agriculture.[290] However, this population of legally registered workers is overshadowed by a large population of between 320,000 and 350,000 illegal workers.[291]

Ethnic groups[edit]

an Iban warrior in his traditional dressMelanau girls with the traditional Baju Kurunga Bidayuh girlSarawakian Chinese woman in her traditional dress of Cheongsam

Sarawak has six major ethnic groups, Iban, Chinese, Malay, Bidayuh, Melanau, and Orang Ulu,[284] as well as a number of ethnic groups with smaller but still substantial populations, such as the Kedayan, Javanese, Bugis, Murut, and Indian.[292] In 2015, the Bidayuh and Iban, both indigenous ethnic groups of Sarawak, were officially recognised by the government of Malaysia as comprising the Dayak people.[293] There are more than 50 tribes still existing or extinct in Sarawak but only the major tribes are listed in the Malaysian Federal Constitution.[294]

The population of 1,389,926 of the Iban people in Sarawak, based on 2022 statistics, makes it the largest ethnic group in the state.[281] The Iban were, in the past, a society that paid particular attention to social status, especially to those who displayed martial prowess as well as to those who demonstrated expertise in various fields such as farming and oratory. Specific terms were used to refer to those who belonged to particular social strata, such as the raja berani (rich and the brave), orang mayuh (ordinary people), and ulun (slaves).[295] Despite modern influences, Iban still observe many of their traditional rituals such as Gawai Antu (festival of the dead) and Gawai Dayak (Harvest Festival).[296]

Although the presence of Chinese in Sarawak dates back to the 6th century AD when traders first came to the state, the Chinese population today largely consists of communities originating from immigrants during the Brooke era.[140] This migration was driven by the employment opportunities at gold mines in Bau.

Sarawak Chinese are primarily Buddhist and Christian,[297] and speak a multitude of southern Chinese languages: Cantonese, Fuzhou, Hakka, Hokkien, Teochew, and Henghua (Putian people), in addition to Mandarin. They celebrate major cultural festivals such as Hungry Ghost Festival and the Chinese New Year much as their ancestors did.[298] Chinese settlers in Sarawak were not limited to any one area. Those who settled in Kuching did so near the Sarawak River in an area that is now referred to as Chinatown.[299] Fuzhounese immigrants from Fuzhou, Fujian, led by Wong Nai Siong in 1901, settled along the Rajang River in what is now Sibu , as due to Boxer Rebellion,[300] while those who arrived in Miri sought work in the coal mines and oilfields.[299]

During the Brooke era, Sarawak Malays were predominantly fishermen,[298] leading to their villages being concentrated along river banks. However, with the advent of urban development, many Malays have migrated to seek employment in public and private sectors. Traditionally, they are known for their silver and brass crafts, wood carvings, and textiles.[140][301]

The Melanau are a native people of Sarawak that lived in areas primarily around the modern city of Mukah, where they worked as fishermen and craftsmen as well renowned boatbuilders. Historically the Melanau practised Animism, a belief that spirits inhabited objects in their environment, and while this is still practised today, most Melanau have since been converted to Christianity and Islam.[140][93][note 7][302]

The Bidayuh are a southern Sarawak people,[303] that were referred to by early European settlers as Land Dayaks because they traditionally live on steep limestone mountains. They account for 7.3 per cent of the population of Sarawak and are the second most numerous of the indigenous Dayak people, after the Iban. The Bidayuh are indigenous to the areas that comprise the modern day divisions of Kuching and Serian. Although considered one people, their language is regionally distinct resulting in dialects that are unintelligible to Bidayuh from outside the immediate locale,[304][failed verification] resulting in English and Malay being the lingua franca. Like many other indigenous peoples, the majority of the Bidayuh have been converted to Christianity,[140]

but still live in villages consisting of longhouses, with the addition of the distinctive round baruk where communal gatherings were held.[140]

The numerous tribes who reside in Sarawak's interior such as the Kenyah, Kayan, Lun Bawang, Kelabit, Penan, Bisaya, and Berawan are collectively referred to as Orang Ulu. In the Iban language, this name means "Upriver People," reflecting the location these tribes settled in;[140] most of them reside near the drainage basin of the Baram River.[305] Both woodworking and artistry are highly visible aspects of Orang Ulu culture exemplified by mural covered longhouses, carved wooden boats, and tattooing.[140] Well-known musical instruments from the Orang Ulu are the Kayans' sapeh and Kenyah's sampe' and Lun Bawang's bamboo band.[305] The Kelabit and Lun Bawang people are known for their production of fragrant rice.[306][305] As with the many other indigenous peoples of Sarawak, the majority of Orang Ulu are Christians.[140]

The Indians, predominantly the Tamils were brought by the British Government to work in estates as labourers and clerks. Besides, the Malayalee community too exist in the cities in Sarawak. Today, many among the Indians are known to be employed as professionals (mainly doctors) in Sarawak.

Languages[edit]

The distribution of language families of Sarawak shown by colours:(click image to enlarge)   Malayic   North Borneo and Melanau Kajang languages   Land Dayak   Areas with multiple languages

English was the official language of Sarawak from 1963 to 1974 due to opposition from First Chief Minister of Sarawak Stephen Kalong Ningkan to the use of the Malaysian language in Sarawak.[307] In 1974, the new Chief Minister Abdul Rahman Ya'kub recognised Malay alongside English as an official language of Sarawak.[105][note 8] This new status given to the Malay language was further reinforced by new education standards transitioning curriculum to Malay.[308] In 1985 English lost the status of an official language, leaving only Malay.[307][note 9] Despite official policy, Sarawak opposition members argue that English remained the de facto official language of Sarawak.[309] English is still spoken in the legal courts, and state legislative assembly.[310][311] In 2015, Chief Minister Adenan Satem reinstated English as an official language.[312][313][314] Sarawak's language autonomy does not extend to the educational system, with the language syllabus controlled by the federal government.[315]

Although the official form of Malay, Bahasa Malaysia, is spoken by the government administration, it is used infrequently in colloquial conversation. The local dialect of Bahasa Sarawak (Sarawak Malay) dominates the vernacular. Bahasa Sarawak is the most common language of Sarawak Malays and other indigenous tribes. The Iban language, which has minor regional variations, is the most widely spoken native language, with 60 per cent of the Sarawak population speaking it as a first language. The Bidayuh language, with six major dialects, is spoken by 10 per cent of the population. The Orang Ulu have about 30 different language dialects. While the ethnic Chinese originate from a variety of backgrounds and speak many different Southern Chinese languages such as Cantonese, Hokkien, Hakka, Fuzhou, and Teochew, they also converse in Malaysian Mandarin.[316] Tamil language is spoken by the Indians in Sarawak.

Religion[edit]

Main article: Demographics of Sarawak § Religions of Sarawak

Religion in Sarawak (2020)[8]

Religion

Percent

Christianity

 

50.1%

Islam

 

34.2%

Buddhism

 

12.8%

No religion

 

1.2%

Others

 

0.5%

Christianity is the largest religion in Sarawak, representing 50.1% of the total population according to the 2020 census.[8] This makes Sarawak the only Malaysian state with a Christian majority. The earliest Christian missionaries in Sarawak were Church of England (Anglicans) in 1848, followed by Roman Catholics a few years later, and Methodists in 1903. Evangelization first took place among the Chinese immigrants before spreading to indigenous animists.[317] Other Christian denominations in Sarawak are Borneo Evangelical Mission (or Sidang Injil Borneo),[318] and Baptists.[319] Indigenous people such as the Iban, Bidayuh, and Orang Ulu have adopted Christianity, although they do retain some of their traditional religious rites. Many Muslims come from the Malay and Melanau. Buddhism, Taoism, and Chinese folk religion are predominantly practised by Chinese Malaysians.[320] Other minor religions in Sarawak are the Baháʼí Faith,[321] Hinduism,[322] Sikhism,[323] and animism.[324]

Although Islam is the official religion of Malaysia, Sarawak has no official state religion.[325] However, during the chieftainship of Abdul Rahman Ya'kub, the Constitution of Sarawak was amended to make the Yang di-Pertuan Agong as the head of Islam in Sarawak and empower the state assembly to pass laws regarding Islamic affairs. With such provisions, Islamic policies can be formulated in Sarawak and the establishment of Islamic state agencies is possible. The 1978 Majlis Islam Bill enabled the setting up of Syariah Courts in Sarawak with jurisdictions over matrimonial, child custody, betrothal, inheritance, and criminal cases in the state. An appeals court and Courts of Kadi were also formed.[105][note 10]

Religious sites in Sarawak

St. Joseph Cathedral

Old Sarawak State Mosque

Hong San Si Temple

Culture[edit]

Main article: Culture of Sarawak

A Kayan tribesman, playing the Sapé

The location and history of Sarawak has resulted in a broad diversity of ethnicity, culture and languages. Among the indigenous peoples of Sarawak, outside influences have led to many changes over time. The Iban tribal culture in Sarawak centred on the concept of the warrior and the ability to take heads from other tribes in battle. This practice, central as it was to the Iban people, was made illegal under James Brooke's rule and ultimately faded away although reminders of the practice are still seen in some long houses.[326] Two other tribal peoples of the Sarawak Highlands, the Kelabit and Lun Bawang, have seen fundamental changes to their ethnic identities as a direct result of their conversion to Christianity. One major change was the shift in the focal point of their social interactions from the traditional long house to the local church. Their religious devotion has also helped shape their worldview outside of their village, particularly in response to change.[327] For the Penan people, one of the last tribes to still be practising a nomadic lifestyle within the jungle, outside influence, particularly education, has resulted in a significant decline in the population that practice the nomadic lifestyle.[328] Others settle down after intermixing with members of different tribes, such as the Orang Ulu.[329] One direct result of this diversity in cultures, engendered by a policy of tolerance to all races, is the increasing numbers of tribal peoples marrying not only other Sarawakian tribes, but also to Chinese, Malays as well as citizens of European or American descent.[330]

The indigenous tribes of Sarawak traditionally used oratory to pass on their culture from one generation to the next;[331][note 11] examples of these traditional practices include the Iban's Ngajat dances,[332] Renong (Iban vocal repertory),[333] Ensera (Iban oral narratives),[307][note 12] and epic storytelling by the Kayan and Kenyah.[334][335]

Ngajat, the Iban warrior dance gazetted as part of Sarawak culture

In the years before federation, the colonial government recognised that British education and indigenous culture was influencing a new generation of Iban teachers. Thus, on 15 September 1958, the Borneo Literature Bureau was inaugurated with a charter to nurture and encourage local literature while also supporting the government in its release of documentation, particularly in technical and instructional manuscripts that were to be distributed to the indigenous peoples of Sarawak and Sabah. As well as indigenous languages, documents would also be published in English, Chinese and Malay. In 1977, the bureau came under the authority of the federal government language planning and development agency, the Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (DBP), which advocated publication only in Malay ultimately causing the demise of fledgling indigenous literature.[307][note 13]

It was a number of decades before print media began to appear in Sarawak. The Sarawak Gazette, published by the Brooke government, recorded a variety of news relating to economics, agriculture, anthropology, archaeology, began circulation in 1870 and continues in modern times.[336]

However, in the decades following federation, restrictive laws and connections to businesses have meant that the media is a largely state-owned enterprise.[307][note 14] One of the earliest known text publications in Borneo, Hikayat Panglima Nikosa (Story of Nikosa the Warrior), was first printed in Kuching, 1876.[337]

There are a number of museums in Sarawak that preserve and maintain artefacts of Sarawak's culture. At the foot of Mount Santubong, Kuching, is Sarawak Cultural Village, a "living museum" that showcases the various ethnic groups carrying out traditional activities in their respective traditional houses.[338][339] The Sarawak State Museum houses a collection of artefacts such as pottery, textiles, and woodcarving tools from various ethnic tribes in Sarawak, as well as ethnographic materials of local cultures.[340] Orang Ulu's Sapeh (a dug-out guitar) is the best known traditional musical instrument in Sarawak and was played for Queen Elizabeth II during her official visit to Sarawak in 1972.[341]

Cuisine[edit]

Main article: Sarawakian cuisine

A bowl of Sarawak laksa

Sarawak being home to diverse communities, has a variety of ethnically influenced cuisines and cooking styles rarely found elsewhere in Malaysia. Notable dishes in the state include Sarawak laksa,[342] kolo mee,[343] and ayam pansuh.[344][345] The state is also known for its Sarawak layer cake dessert.[346]

Portrayal in media[edit]

A number of international films, documentaries, television series had made Sarawak as a principal photography location, with Farewell to the King (1989), The Sleeping Dictionary (2003), and Edge of the World (2021) being most notable.[347][348] Amongst the first locally produced movies were the Iban language film named "Bejalai" that was featured in the Berlin Film Festival in 1989 and the horror film named "Possessed" screened in 2006.[347]

Holidays and festivals[edit]

Sarawakians observe a number of holidays and festivals throughout the year.[349] Apart from national Independence Day and Malaysia Day celebrations, the state also celebrates its Independence Day on 22 July and the State Governor's birthday.[350][351][352] Ethnic groups also celebrate their own festivals. The open house tradition allows other ethnic groups to join in the celebrations.[353] Sarawak is the only state in Malaysia to declare the Gawai Dayak celebration a public holiday.[354]

Sports[edit]

Sarawak sent its own teams to participate in the 1958 and 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games,[355] and 1962 Asian Games; after 1963, Sarawakians competed as part of the Malaysian team.[356][357] Sarawak hosted the Malaysian SUKMA Games in 1990 and 2016,[358] and was overall champion in the 1990, 1992, and 1994 SUKMA games.[359] It also hosted the Para SUKMA Games in 1996 and 2016, and was overall champion for 13 consecutive editions from 1994 until 2018.[360] In 2019, both Sabah and Sarawak Sports Ministries work together to establish the East Malaysia Sports Commission to facilitate the organisation of more sports programmes in the two territories including other places in the Borneo islands.[361] The Sarawak government also plans to make Sarawak an e-sports hub in the region.[362]

International relations[edit]

Sarawak is a sister state/province to Fujian Province in China.[363]

See also[edit]

Bibliography of Sarawak

List of people from Sarawak

Notes[edit]

^ Ooi, 2013. Rajah aborgated his absolute powers...(page 103)

^ Ooi, 2013. This denial of entry to Anthony ... (page 93) ... The anti-cession movement was by the early 1950s effectively "strangled" a dead letter.(page 98)

^ Ishikawa, 2010 (page 87)

^ The first Communist group to be formed in Sarawak ... (page 95)

^ Alastair, 1993. The first political party, the Sarawak United Peoples' Party (SUPP) ... (page 118) ... By 1962, there were six parties ... (page 119)

^ Faisal, 2012. ...dispensed state funds for development projects in order to buy votes... (page 14)

^ Ishikawa, 2010 (page 169)

^ Faisal, 2012 ... to make Bahasa Malaysia and English as negeri's official languages. (page 84)

^ Postill, 2006 ... Malay was accepted as the official language of Sarawak alongside English until 1985, when English was finally dropped. (page 64)

^ Faisal, 2012. Negri is empowered to make provisions for regulating Islamic affairs... (page 86)

^ Pandian, 2014. it became the primary means of passing culture, history, and valued traditions. ... in the fact that oral literature is actualised only in performances; (page 95)

^ Postill, 2006. ... four were oral narratives ... (page 51)

^ Postill, 2006. ;... to encourage local authorship and meet local needs ... (page 51) ... The Bureau ceased to exist in 1977 when it was taken over by the federal body Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.(page 55) ... He concludes that DBP cannot publish books in regional languages (pages 59 and 60)

^ Postill, 2006. ... the government controls virtually all newspapers in Sarawak (page 76)

References[edit]

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^ a b Philip Mathews (28 February 2014). Chronicle of Malaysia: Fifty Years of Headline News, 1963–2013. Editions Didier Millet. p. 15. ISBN 978-967-10617-4-9.

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^ a b c "Facts and Figures 2022". Retrieved 27 August 2021.[dead link] Alt URL

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^ "Pomp celebrations for Sarawak Governor's birthday". The Star (Malaysia). 12 September 2015. Archived from the original on 8 January 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2016.

^ "CM and wife to have Hari Raya open house at BCCK". 15 July 2015. 15 July 2015. Retrieved 7 January 2016. • Aubrey, S (9 June 2015). "1,000 throng Manyin's Gawai Dayak open house". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 8 January 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2016. • "KTS holds Chinese New Year Open House in Bintulu". The Borneo Post. 9 March 2015. Archived from the original on 16 December 2015. Retrieved 8 January 2016.

^ "Public Holiday in Sarawak in conjunctions with the Gawai Dayak Celebration". Co-operative College in Malaysia. Archived from the original on 8 January 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2016.

^ "Commonwealth Games Federation – Countries – Sarawak". Commonwealth Games Federation. 11 January 2016. Retrieved 11 January 2016.

^ "Japan top the list with 73 'golds'". The Straits Times. 5 September 1962. Retrieved 11 January 2016.

^ "Jakarta 1962". Olympic Council of Asia. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 11 January 2016.

^ "S'wak to host Sukma in 2016 — Khairy". The Borneo Post. 4 September 2013. Archived from the original on 11 January 2016. Retrieved 11 January 2016.

^ Pail, Salena (22 October 2015). "CM revs up momentum for 2016 S'wak Sukma". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 11 January 2016. Retrieved 11 January 2016.

^ Tieng Hii, Ting (6 November 2022). "Sarawak's reign as Para Sukma overall champions ends". The Borneo Post. Retrieved 13 November 2022.

^ Matthew Umpang (5 September 2019). "Sabah, S'wak Sports Ministries to work together to create East Malaysia Sports Commission". The Borneo Post. Retrieved 8 October 2019.

^ Nigel Edgar (27 January 2019). "Sarawak hopes to become an eSports hub in the region one day". Dayak Daily. Archived from the original on 30 October 2019. Retrieved 30 October 2019.

^ "Sister Provinces (Sarawak, Malaysia)". Foreign Affairs Office of the People's Government of Fujian Province, China. 30 January 2018. Archived from the original on 27 September 2019. Retrieved 27 September 2019.

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Demographics of Sarawak - Wikipedia

Demographics of Sarawak - Wikipedia

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(Top)

1Ethnic groups of Sarawak

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1.1Maps

2Dayak people

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2.1Iban

2.2Bidayuh

2.2.1Salako & Lara

3Orang Ulu

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3.1Kayan

3.2Lun Bawang

3.3Kelabit

3.4Kenyah

3.5Penan

3.6Punan Bah

3.7Sebop

3.8Tagal

4Bisaya

5Melanau

6Malay

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6.1Sarawakian Malay

6.2Kedayan

6.3Javanese

6.4Bugis

7Indian/South Asian

8Eurasian

9Sinitic people

10Religions of Sarawak

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10.1Christianity

10.2Islam

10.3Buddhism/Taoism

10.4Hinduism

10.5Sikhism

10.6Baháʼí Faith

10.7Animism

11See also

12References

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Historical populationYearPop.±% 1970 976,269—     1980 1,235,553+26.6% 1991 1,642,771+33.0% 2000 2,009,893+22.3% 2010 2,399,839+19.4% 2021 2,470,000+2.9%Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org.Source: Department of Statistics, Malaysia (2021)

Sarawak's population is very diverse, comprising many races and ethnic groups. Sarawak has more than 40 sub-ethnic groups, each with its own distinct language, culture and lifestyle. This makes Sarawak demography very distinct and unique compared to its Peninsular counterpart. However, it largely mirrors to other territories in Borneo - Sabah, Brunei and Kalimantan.

Ethnic groups of Sarawak[edit]

Ethnic groups in Sarawak[1]

  Iban (28.8%)  Malay (22.9%)  Chinese (23.3%)  Bidayuh (8%)  Other Bumiputeras (mainly Orang Ulu) (6.3%)  Melanau (4.9%)  Non-Malaysians (4.7%)  Others (0.6%)

A Modern Iban Longhouse, built using new materials and preserving essential features of communal living

Iban girls dressed in full Iban (women) attire during Gawai festivals in Debak, Betong region, Sarawak

In general, there are several major ethnic groups in Sarawak: Iban, Chinese , Malay, Bidayuh, Orang Ulu, Melanau and several minor ethnic groups placed collectively under 'Others', such as Indian, Eurasian, Kedayan, Javanese, Bugis, Murut and many more.

Maps[edit]

Below are distribution of ethnic groups in Sarawak by state constituencies, based on 2020 census.[2]

Iban

Malay

Chinese

Bidayuh

Melanau

Dayak people[edit]

The Dayak of Sarawak comprises the Iban and Bidayuh.

Iban[edit]

Main article: Iban people

Sea Dayaks (Iban) women from Rejang, Sarawak, wearing rattan corsets decorated with brass rings and filigree adornments. The family adds to the corset dress as the girl ages and based on her family's wealth.

The Ibans comprise the largest percentage (28.8%) of Sarawak's population. Iban is native to Borneo and their ancestral homeland is located in the Upper Kapuas, West Kalimantan before their migrations to Sarawak from the 1750s.[3] Formerly reputed to be the most formidable headhunters on the island of Borneo, the Ibans of today are a generous, hospitable and placid people.[4]

Because of their history as farmers, pirates and fishermen, Ibans were conventionally referred to as the "Sea Dayaks". The early Iban settlers migrated from Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of Borneo south of Sarawak, via the Kapuas River. They crossed over the Kelingkang range and set up home in the river valleys of Batang Ai, the Skrang River, Saribas, and the Rajang River. The Ibans dwell in longhouses, stilted structures with a large number of rooms housing a whole community of families.[4]

An Iban longhouse may still display head trophies or antu pala. These suspended heads mark tribal victories and were a source of honour. The Dayak Iban ceased practising headhunting in the 1930s.[4]

The Ibans are renowned for their Pua Kumbu (traditional Iban weavings), silver craft, wooden carvings and bead work. Iban tattoos, which were originally symbols of bravery among Iban warriors, have become amongst the most distinctive in the world.[4] The Ibans are also famous for a sweet rice wine called tuak, which is served during big celebrations and festive occasions.[5]

The large majority of Ibans practise Christianity. However, like most other ethnic groups in Sarawak, they still observe many of their traditional rituals and beliefs. Sarawak Iban celebrates colourful festivals such as the generic all-encomposing Gawai Dayak (harvest festival) which is a recent invention and thus held by all Dayak tribes including Iban, Bidayuh and Orang Ulu regardless of their religion. The major festivals of the Iban people are Gawai Bumai (Rice Farming Festival) that includes at least four stages i.e. Gawai Batu (Whetstone Festival), Gawai Benih (Seed Festival), Gawai Ngemali Umai / Jagok (Farm-Healing Festival), Gawai Matah (Harvest-Starting Festival) and Gawai Basimpan (Paddy Safekeeping Festival), Gawai Tuah (Fortune Festival) that comprises Gawai Namaka Tuah (Fortune-Welcoming Festival), Gawai Tajau (Jar Festival) and Gawai Pangkong Tiang (House Post Banging Festival), Gawai Sakit (Healing Festival) including Pelian by a manang shaman, Renong Sakit and Sugi Sakit by a lemambang bard, Gawai Antu (festival of the dead) to honour ancestors and the rarely celebrated but the most elaborate and complex Gawai Burong (Bird Festival) with nine ascending stages in the Saribas/Skrang region or Gawai Amat (Real Festival) in the Baleh region with eight degrees as listed by Masing.

Due to the natural culture of bajalai (sojurn) among Ibans mainly in search of jobs, there is a thriving Iban population of between 300,000 and 350,000 in Johor, found mostly in the area between Pasir Gudang and Masai on the eastern end of the Johor Bahru metropolitan area. Sizeable Iban communities are also present in Kuala Lumpur and Penang, likewise seeking employment. Most will return home during the Gawai Dayak.

Bidayuh[edit]

Main article: Bidayuh

Concentrated mainly on the west end of Borneo, the Bidayuhs make up 8% of the population in Sarawak are now most numerous in the hill counties of Lundu, Bau, Penrissen, Padawan, Siburan and Serian, within an hour's drive from Kuching.

Historically, as other tribes were migrating into Sarawak and forming settlements including a degree of historical Malayisation mainly taken place in the coastal areas, the Bidayuhs retreated further inland, hence earning them the name of "Land Dayaks" or "land owners". The word Bidayuh in itself literally means "land people" in Biatah dialect. In Bau-Jagoi/Singai dialect, the pronunciation is "Bidoyoh" which also carry the same meaning.

The traditional community construction of the Bidayuh is the "baruk", a roundhouse that rises about 1.5 metres off the ground. It serves as the granary and the meeting house for the settlement's community. Longhouses were typical in the olden days, similar to that of the Ibans.

Typical of the Sarawak indigenous groups, the Bidayuhs are well known for their hospitality, and are reputed to be the best makers of tuak, or rice wine. Bidayuhs also use distilling methods to make arak tonok, a kind of moonshine.[6]

The Bidayuhs speak a number of different but related dialects. Some Bidayuhs speak either Iban or Sarawak Malay as their main language. While some of them still practise traditional religions, the majority of modern-day Bidayuhs have adopted the Christian faith with a few villages embracing the Islamic faith as a minority group within the Bidayuh community.

Salako & Lara[edit]

This ethnic group forms a small minority with very little or no comprehensive studies done by any party on their dialect, culture/customs and history. Although classified as Bidayuh by the Malaysian government for political convenience, the Salako and Lara culture have nothing in common with the other Bidayuh groups and their oral tradition claim different descent and migration histories. It is understandable that since this group is living within Bidayuh-majority areas and the fact that they also prefer to stay in one permanent inland area, most probably for agricultural reasons instead of branching out to other locations as opposed to the other races, they are grouped together as Land Dayaks.

This tribal community is believed to have originated from Gajing Mountain, at the source of Salakau River, near Singkawang in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Their language is completely different and not intelligible with the other spoken Bidayuh dialects in the other districts. They are mainly found concentrated in the Lundu area. In August 2001, the Salako and Lara community set up the Salako-Lara Association to safe guard and preserve their culture and custom for the future generations.

Orang Ulu[edit]

Main article: Orang Ulu

A Kayan man, playing the Sapeh

Orang Ulu is an ethnic group in Sarawak. The various Orang Ulu groups together make up to 6.3% of Sarawak's population. The phrase Orang Ulu means upriver people and is a term used to collectively describe the numerous tribes that live upriver in Sarawak's vast interior. Such groups include the major Kayan and Kenyah tribes, and the smaller neighbouring groups of the Kajang, Kejaman, Punan, Ukit, and Penan. Nowadays, the definition also includes the down-river tribes of the Lun Bawang, Lun Dayeh, "mean upriver" or "far upstream", Berawan, Saban as well as the plateau-dwelling Kelabits. Orang Ulu is a term coined officially by the government to identify several ethnics and sub-ethnics who live mostly at the upriver and uphill areas of Sarawak. Most of them live in the district of Baram, Miri, Belaga, Limbang and Lawas.

The Orang Ulu are artistic people with longhouses elaborately decorated with murals and woodcarvings.[7] They are also well known for their intricate beadwork and detailed tattoos. The Orang Ulu tribe can also be identified by their unique musical sound made by a sapeh, a stringed instrument similar to a mandolin.

The vast majority of the Orang Ulu tribe are Christians but traditional religions are still practised in some areas.

Some of the major tribes making up the Orang Ulu group include:

Kayan[edit]

There are approximately 43,000 Kayans in Sarawak. The Kayan tribe built their longhouses in the northern interiors of Sarawak midway on the Baram River, the upper Rejang River and the lower Tubau River, and were traditionally headhunters.

They are well known for their boat making skills. The Kayan people carve from a single block of belian, the strongest of the tropical hardwoods.[8]

Although many Kayan have become Christians, some still practise paganistic beliefs, but this is becoming more rare.[9]

Lun Bawang[edit]

The Lun Bawang are indigenous to the highlands of East Kalimantan, Brunei (Temburong District), southwest of Sabah (Interior Division) and northern region of Sarawak (Limbang Division). Lun Bawang people are traditionally agriculturalists and rear poultry, pigs and buffalo.

Lun Bawangs are also known to be hunters and fishermen. Alternatively, they are also collectively called the Murut of Sarawak and are closely related to the Lun Dayeh of Sabah , Kalimantan and Murut Brunei.[10]

Kelabit[edit]

With a population of approximately 6000, the Kelabit are inhabitants of Bario – a remote plateau in the Sarawak Highlands, slightly over 1,200 meters above sea level. The Kelabits form a tight-knit agrarian community and practicing unique agricultural practices for generations. Famous for their rice-farming, they also cultivate a variety of other crops which are suited to the cooler climate of the Highlands of Bario. The Kelabits are closely related to the Lun Bawang.

The Kelabit are predominantly Christian, the Bario Highlands having been visited by Christian missionaries many years ago. A Christian revival, the Bario revival changed them.[11]

Kenyah[edit]

With the population about 64,000, the Kenyah inhabit the Upper Belaga and upper Baram. There is little historical evidence regarding the exact origin of the Kenyah tribe. Their heartland however, is Long San, along the Baram River and Belaga along Rajang River. Their culture is very similar to that of the Kayan tribe with whom they live in close association.

The typical Kenyah village consists of only one longhouse. Most inhabitants are farmers, planting rice in burnt jungle clearings. With the rapid economic development, especially in timber industry, many of them work in timber camps.[citation needed]

Penan[edit]

The Penan are the only true nomadic people in Sarawak and are amongst the last of the world's hunter-gatherers.[1] The Penan make their home under the rainforest canopy, deep within the vast expanse of Sarawak's jungles. Even today, the Penan continue to roam the rainforest hunting wild boar and deer with blowpipes.[citation needed]

The Penan are skilled weavers and make high-quality rattan baskets and mats. The traditional Penan religion worships a supreme god called Bungan. However, the increasing number who have abandoned the nomadic lifestyle for settlement in longhouses have converted to Christianity.[12]

Punan Bah[edit]

Main article: Punan Bah people

Not to be confused with the Penan, the Punan Bah or Punan is a distinct ethnic group found in Sarawak, Malaysia. They are mostly found around the Bintulu area and also in Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of Borneo. They live on a mixed economy, engaging in swidden style of agriculture, with hill paddy as the main crop & supplemented by a range of other tropical plants. Hunting, fishing, and gathering of forest resources are the other important contributors to their economy. In recent times, many of the educated younger generation gradually migrated to urban areas such as Bintulu, Sibu, Kuching and Kuala Lumpur in search of better living & returning home occasionally, especially during major festivities such as Harvest Festival / or Bungan festival.

At the moment, the term Punan is often indiscriminately & collectively used to refer to the then unknown or yet to be classified tribes as such as Punan Busang, Penihing, Sajau Hovongan, Uheng Kareho, Merah, Aput, Tubu, Bukat, Ukit, Habongkot and Penyawung. There has been no effort to comprehensively study or research on this ensemble of tribes; these communities lack the privilege and are deprived of their rights to be recognised as individual & unique races (with their own tradition, language & cultural heritage) within the nation's list of ethnic classification, resulting to more than 20 different tribes / ethnics (unrelated to one another) found on the island of Borneo being lumped together into one ethnic group, which includes;

Punan Busang

Punan Penihing

Punan Batu

Punan Sajau

Punan Hovongan of Kapuas Hulu, West Kalimantan

Punan Uheng Kereho of Kapuas Hulu, West Kalimantan

Punan Murung of Murung Raya, Central Kalimantan

Punan Aoheng (Suku Dayak Pnihing) of East Kalimantan

Punan Merah (Siau)

Punan Aput

Punan Merap

Punan Tubu

Punan Ukit/Bukitan

Dayak Bukat

Punan Habongkot

Punan Panyawung

Sebop[edit]

The Sebop is one of the least known groups in Sarawak and they can be found in upper Tinjar river in the Miri Division of Sarawak. Within the Sebup group are the sub-groups that include Long Pekun, Maleng, Lirong, Long Kapah, Long Lubang, Teballau and Long Suku. Cultural researchers acknowledged that there is a Sebop stream in the Usun Apau from which the Sebop got their ethnic name. The Sebup ancestors were said to have lived in the adjacent valleys on the southern side of Usun Apau namely; Seping, Menapun, Menawan and Luar rivers before they moved north towards the Tinjar. Today the Sebup are found in Long Luyang, Long Batan, Long Selapun, Long Pala, Long Nuwah and Long Subeng. Amongst the longhouses, Long Luyang is the longest and most populated Sebop settlement. It comprises more than 100 units.

The Sebop are Christians and their cultural festival is Pesta Coen, a celebration that was used to mark the successful returned of their warriors (Lakin Ayau) from the battlefield. Today it is celebrated as a social cultural festival for everyone to return to the longhouse. Among the highlights of the celebration are the raising up of the gigantic ceremonial pole (Kelebong) as well as the traditional dances and songs.

Tagal[edit]

Main article: Murut people

Also known as "Murut Sabah", "Tagal" or "hill people", this indigenous subgroup of the Murut people can be found inhabiting the lowland areas around Lawas & Limbang. They are part of an interstate ethnic group that is found highly concentrated along the borderlands and inland areas of Sabah, Brunei, Kalimantan and Sarawak, with the majority in the former.

The Tagal are mostly shifting cultivators, with some hunting and riverine fishing on the side. They use the Tagol Murut language as the lingua franca of the whole group. It belongs to the North Bornean subdivision of the Austronesian language family. A majority of the Tagal people are Christians, with a few Muslims.

Bisaya[edit]

Main article: Bisaya (Borneo)

The Bisaya are an indigenous people, concentrated around the Limbang river in northern Sarawak state. Most Sarawakian Bisaya are Christians. The Bisaya are also found in Sabah (around Kuala Penyu and Beaufort). In Sabah, the majority of them are Muslims; the minority practice Christianity. Some of them still practice Paganism. They are believed to be distantly related to the Visayan of the Philippines. Legend belief is such that in the distant past, there were large migration of Bisaya to The Philippines. However the Bisaya dialect is more related to Malay language than the Philippines Visaya language. Such similarities may be due to the standardising effect and influence of the Malay Language has over the Borneon Bisaya as well as all other ethnic languages spoken in Malaysia.

Bisaya’s indigenous people have settled in Borneo for a long time. They are skilled in agriculture such as paddy planting and cultivation of gingers. They also hunt wild animals and rear domestic animals such as chicken, goat and buffaloes. Bisaya people are also skilled in catching fish, both in the rivers and sea.

Melanau[edit]

A replica of a traditional Melanau House

Main article: Melanau

The Melanaus have been thought to be amongst the original settlers of Sarawak.[13] They make up 4.9% of the population in Sarawak.

Originally from Mukah (the 10th Administrative Division as launched in March 2002), the Melanaus traditionally lived in tall houses. Nowadays, they have adopted a Malay lifestyle, living in kampong-type settlements. Traditionally, Melanaus were fishermen and still today, they are reputed as some of the finest boat-builders and craftsmen.[14]

While the Melanaus are ethnically different from the Malays, their lifestyles and practices are quite similar. This is especially the case in the larger towns and cities where most Melanau have adopted the Islamic faith.[15]

The Melanaus were believed to originally summon spirits in a practice verging on paganism. Today most of the Melanaus are Muslims whilst some were converted to Christianity (especially around Mukah & Dalat areas). However some still celebrate traditional animist festivals such as the annual Kaul festival in Mukah District.

Malay[edit]

Sarawakian Malay[edit]

Traditional Sarawakian Malay home

The Malays make up 22.9% of the population in Sarawak. Sarawak was a home for several former native Malay kingdoms, including the Sarawak Sultanate (1598–1641), Banting (16th century), Saribas (15th century), Samarahan (13th century) and Santubong (7th century).

Similar to the ethnogenesis development in many parts of Borneo, a large number of the Malays in Sarawak are indigenous to the land and were historically descendant from various native Bornean tribes that have adopted the Malay culture, language and the Islamic faith for centuries, drawn in a process known as Malayisation (Masuk Melayu).[16][17] At the same time, there are also other Sarawakian Malays that can traced their lineage from a diverse origin and ancestries, including Brunei, Sumatera, Natuna, Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan and other regions.

Traditionally fishermen, these seafaring people chose to form settlements on the banks of the many rivers of Sarawak, while others (the native tribes) were absorbed into the Malay identity since most of the historical contacts, religious conversion and assimilation were predominantly taken place in the rivers and coastal areas. Today, many Malays have migrated to the cities where they are heavily involved in the public and private sectors and taken up various professions.

Malay villages, known as Kampungs, are a cluster of wooden houses on stilts, many of which are still located by rivers on the outskirts of major towns and cities, play home to traditional cottage industries. The Malays are famed for their wood carvings, silver and brass craftings as well as traditional Malay textile weaving with silver and gold thread (kain songket). Malay in Sarawak have a distinct dialect which is called Sarawak Malay. It has many elements of the Sambas language spoken before contact with the Bruneian sultanate. The culture of Sarawakian Malay is also somewhat unusual such as bermukun, Sarawak zapin, and keringkam weaving. It is possible, though insufficient studies exist, that these are remnants of the Sambas sultanate’s culture, prior to a change in identity and the speaking of a unique hybrid of Malay-Sambas by the previously Sambas speaking natives.

In Federal Constitution, Malays are Muslim by religion, having been converted to the faith some 600 years ago with the Islamification of the native region. Their religion is reflected in their culture and art and Islamic symbolism is evident in local architecture – from homes to government buildings. In Malaysia, people of Indonesian descent: Javanese, Bugis, and Banjar are constitutionally classified as Malays, and have the same rights should they become a citizen.

Kedayan[edit]

Main article: Kedayan

The Kedayan are an ethnic group residing in parts of Sarawak. They are also known as Kadayan, Kadaian or simply badly spelled as Kadyan by the British. The Kedayan language is spoken by more than 35,000 people in Sarawak, with most of the members of the Kedayan community residing in Lawas, Limbang, Miri and Sibuti areas. A sizable community also exists in Brunei Darussalam and Sabah.

The Kedayans is believed to have Javanese origins. The British Resident Malcolm McArthur attests to their Javanese origins in his Report on Brunei 1904.[18] Meanwhile, historians such as Pehin Jamil claimed the Kedayans were bought over from Java to Borneo by Sultan Bolkiah the 5th during his famous conquests of Borneo.[19] This was due to the Kedayan's prowess in padi farming and other agricultural abilities. Other researchers consider them indigenous to Borneo, having accepted Islam and influenced by Malay culture, primarily by Bruneians.

Kedayan are mainly padi farmers or fishermen. They have a reputation for knowledge of medicinal plants, which they grow to treat a wide range of ailments or to make tonics. The Kedayan tend to settle inland in a cluster pattern, with houses built in the centre and with fields radiating outwards. The Kedayans traditionally tended to be a rather closed community, discouraging contact with outsiders. Intermarriage among relatives was encouraged for economic and social reasons.

Javanese[edit]

Main article: Javanese people

The present generation are descended from the original ethnic Javanese people, the majority from the province of Central Java, who arrived in Sarawak as "kuli kontrak", indentured servants who were brought in by the Dutch via Batavia (modern-day Jakarta) during the late 1800s to the 1940s & transferred to a British company to work in the rubber plantations. After the end of their contracts, some of them had decided to settle down & work on land no longer producing rubber. Over the years, these labourers were prosperous & were later given the right of ownership to several hectares of land.

An estimated 5,000 Javanese people are found all over the state, establishing their own villages, with the majority concentrated in Kuching & its surrounding areas. Some of the younger generation still carry traditional Javanese names & are identified as ethnic Javanese in their birth certificates. They are proud of their heritage; the current population still speak the language of their parents & retaining their age-old traditions & practices of their forefathers.

The friendly Javanese are traditionally Muslims, so they have a strong affinity with the Malays, with many of them intermarrying & living within Malay-majority areas & also other communities. They use Sarawak Malay or English as a common lingua franca to communicate with the other ethnic groups.

Bugis[edit]

Main article: Bugis

The Bugis are an ethnic group which had originated from the southwestern province of Sulawesi, Indonesia. They are renowned around the archipelago as adventurous seafarers and merchants, establishing trading routes with other ports along Sarawak's coastal areas over the past few centuries, eventually settling down with their families or taking up local spouses. The Bugis artisans are noted for their expertise in building tongkangs & proas, plying their skills at the fishing villages and local dockyards. They are also skilled farmers, construction workers, traders and fishermen.

The Bugis population in Sarawak is scattered throughout the state. Many can be found living along the coast alongside or within other communities and also opening up small agricultural settlements further inland, especially in the Sarikei district. They are predominantly Muslims and many have amalgamated with the local Muslim society through marriage.

Indian/South Asian[edit]

Main article: Malaysian Indian Main article: South Asian

The Indians and generally South Asians in Sarawak are a small geographical and ethno-cultural community, estimated to be between 6,500 people (figure also includes those of mixed parentage and professionals, students and residents from other parts of Malaysia), found mainly in the urban exteriors of Kuching and Miri division. The majority of Indians in Sarawak are Tamils. There are also other Indians minorities from the Punjabi Sikhs, Telugus, Sindhis and Keralites ethnic groups.

The Sikhs were among the earliest South Asians to set foot on Sarawak's soil, recruited by the first White Rajah, Sir James Brooke in Singapore as police officers to bring peace, law and order during the 1857 Chinese uprising in Bau. At a much later stage, the Sikhs were employed as security personnel for the Sarawak Shell Company in Miri and also as government-appointed prison wardens. It is also believed that there were a few Sikhs in the Sarawak Rangers, which was formed in 1872.

As for the Tamils and other minority Indian ethnic groups, their history in the state began during the 1860s, when they were brought in from South India by the second White Rajah Charles Brooke to work in the tea and coffee plantations at Matang Hills. They were also traders and travelers visiting the state for religious, educational or business opportunities. After many years, the South Asian community had extended to include newer immigrants from Sri Lanka, Pakistan and other areas in India. The Indian Muslims were prominent in the restaurant business, textile trade & Indian food production. They were also instrumentally significant in their contribution to the Islamic fellowship and religious welfare in the state with their Muslim Malay brethren.

Many of the present-day Sarawak South Asians are from mixed marriages with the Malays, Chinese & other Sarawak native ethnic groups, with many of the younger generation using English, Sarawak Malay or one of the native or Chinese dialects to communicate with everybody else. They have assimilated well within the state's general population as a culturally distinct group in Sarawak that is rather unique as opposed to the Indian diaspora of Peninsular Malaysia and the Asian region in general. A number of Sarawak Indians can be found working as doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers and other professional careers in the government and private sectors.

Eurasian[edit]

Mixed marriages/unions between Europeans and local spouses have been going on for centuries, since the time European traders, sailors and colonists first set foot on Sarawak's soils.

The Eurasians in Sarawak continues to be the smallest of minorities, with many of them rather identifying themselves with the major racial denomination of their local parent rather than that of their European, Australian or American parent, as the local state government does not formally classify them as an official ethnicity. At the moment, the exact number of people in the local Eurasian community is not known, as many of them registered themselves (for administrative and social ease) as Iban, Bidayuh, Chinese, Malay, Melanau, Orang Ulu, Indian or simply under "others". Besides assimilating themselves into the general populace, many of them had also migrated to Peninsular Malaysia or their foreign parents' countries of origin.

The local Eurasians established the Sarawak Eurasian Association (SEA) in the year 2000 to foster closer ties among members of this community and also to raise awareness on the existence of this distinct group. Their association is quite unique, if compared to the Eurasian associations of Peninsular Malaysia, as it is composed by members of different religious faiths.

Sinitic people[edit]

A Paifang in Malaysia-China Friendship Park, Kuching

Main article: Malaysian Chinese

Chinese records has shown that China had a trading contact with Borneo as early as 600 A.D. when a country known as "Po Ni" (present day Brunei) sent tribute to Tang Emperor. When British explorer James Brooke arrived in Borneo in 1839, there were several hundred Chinese working in pepper plantations there. The first Hakka migrants worked as labourers in the gold mines at Bau. This was followed by the migration of Fuzhou people to the Rajang basin in 1900s, working as farmers in cash crop industries such as pepper, rubber, sago, and oil palm. Meanwhile, Hokkien people from the Xiamen area, worked as merchants. Lastly, the Cantonese people, who made up majority of the sinitic people population in the Peninsular Malaysia, not been really attracted to Sarawak.[20]

As of 1989, 30% of Sarawak Chinese population was made up of ethnic Hakka, followed by Fuzhounese (30%), Hokkien (12%), and Cantonese (8%). The Sinitic people made up 73% of the population in Kuching and 77% in Sibu.[20]

Through their clan associations, business acumen and work ethic, the Sinitic people organised themselves economically and rapidly dominated commerce. Today, the Sinitic people are amongst Sarawak's most prosperous ethnic groups.

Today, they make up 17.1% of the population of Sarawak (as reported by Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM) in 2021), and consist of communities built from the economic migrants of the 19th and early 20th centuries.

The Sarawak Sinitic people belong to a wide range of ethnic groups, the most significant being:

Hakka

Hokkien

Chaoshanese

Teochew

Shanghainese

Hainanese

Kwongsai

Cantonese

Minnanese

Fujianese

Fuzhounese

Puxian Min

Whereas Hakka is spoken predominantly by the farmers in the interior, Hokkien and Teochew are the dominant languages spoken within the major trading towns and among early traders and businessmen. Hainanese (a.k.a. Hailam) were well known as coffee-shop operators, the Henghua are famous as fishermen. The notable difference between the Sarawakian Sinitic people and those presiding in West Malaysia is the latter’s common use of Cantonese. Malaysian Mandarin however, has become the unifying language spoken by all the distinct ethnic groups with sinitic origins in both East and West Malaysia, replicating China. The Hakka people in Kuching, Sarawak came from Jieyang, Guangdong. The Hokkien came from Zhao'an, Fujian. The Teochew came from Shantou and Chaozhou in Guangdong, the Shanghainese came from Shanghai, Hainanese from Hainan, Cantonese from Guangdong, Fuzhounese from Fuzhou, Fujian. The Kwongsai people came from Guangxi, Chaoshanese people came from Chaoshan, Minnanese people came from Xiamen, Lastly the Henghuas or Hinghwa or Puxian people from Putian, Fujian.

The Sinitic people maintain their ethnic heritage and culture and celebrate all the major cultural festivals, most notably Lunar New Year, the Hungry Ghost Festival and Christmas. The Sarawak Sinitic people are predominantly Buddhists and Christians.

Religions of Sarawak[edit]

Religion in Sarawak (2022)[21]

Religion

Percent

Christianity

 

50.1%

Islam

 

34.2%

Buddhism

 

12.8%

No religion

 

2.2%

Others

 

0.5%

Christianity is the largest religion in Sarawak, representing 50.1% of the total population according to the 2020 census.[21] Sarawakians practice a variety of religions, including Christianity, Chinese folk religion (a fusion of Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism and ancestor worship), Islam, Baha’i Faith and animism.[22] Unsurprisingly, the issue of Islam as state religion divides the Muslim and non-Muslims with a contrasting 85% supporting and opposing, respectively. Nevertheless, 93% of Sarawakians consider their regional Sarawak identity to be their first choice in defining themselves which is in stark contrast to Peninsular Malaysia where 55% see religion as their most important identity marker. This is in line with the Malaccan Sultanate from which the Malay language and culture stems.[23] Adopting a common name, language and religion has united the various West Malaysian indigenous communities and many Sambas indigenous people of Kuching. Sarawakians across all religions express majority support for increased autonomy for the state - at 76% overall.[24]

Christianity[edit]

Main article: Christianity in Malaysia

St. Joseph's Cathedral, Kuching, a Roman Catholic cathedral in Kuching, Sarawak.

Christianity makes up the largest religion in Sarawak. Sarawak is the state with the highest percentage of Christians in Malaysia and the only state with a Christian majority. According to the 2020 census, Christians make up 50.1% of the population of Sarawak.[21]

Protestants, mostly Anglicans, make up the majority, followed by more than 441,300 Catholics. [25] Other Christian denominations in Sarawak include Methodists, Borneo Evangelical Church (or Sidang Injil Borneo, S.I.B.) and Baptists. Many Sarawakian Christians are mostly non-Malay Bumiputera, ranging from Iban, Bidayuh, Orang Ulu, Murut and Melanau.

Denomination of Christians in Sarawak may vary according to their race, although this is not necessarily true. For example, most Chinese Christians are Methodists, most Ibans and Bidayuhs are either Roman Catholics or Anglicans, whilst most Orang Ulu are S.I.B.s. Church plays an important part in shaping morality of the communities, while many Christians view the church as a religious place. Professing Christianity has led to the abolition of some previous rituals by indigenous ethnics such as headhunting and improper disposal of dead bodies. Since the majority of people indigenous to Sarawak are Christians, these people have adopted Christian names in English or Italian, such as Valentino, Joseph, and Constantine. Almost 93% of the Iban, Kelabit, and Bidayuh have changed their traditional names to English names since they converted to Christianity. Many young indigenous Iban, Kelabit, and Bidayuh people in Sarawak will not practice the ceremonies of their ancestors such as Miring, the worship of Singalang Burung (local deity), and celebration of Gawai Antu. The Bidayuhs are mainly Pagans or animists before they convert to Christianity and they believe in ancestral worship and in the ancient spirits of nature. Due to this, they have big celebrations like the Gawai (1 June), which is a celebration to please the padi spirit for a good harvest and nowadays, since 60% of the population has converted to Christianity, the young Bidayuh generation will celebrate only Christmas as their first priority. Christians among indigenous ethnics have also embraced many Christian values such as preserving modesty and dedication to God.[14]

Christianity has also contributed to the betterment of the education system in Sarawak. There were a lot of missionary schools built during the 1950s to early 1980s.[26] Christianity has gained popularity throughout Sarawak, transcending race and religion. Due to federalisation of the education system, most of these missionary schools have been converted into government national schools. Participation of the church in these schools has been reduced. The Malaysian government has allowed the schools to continue using religious symbols on school buildings and teaching Christian values to non-Muslim students.[27]

Christians in Sarawak observe many Christian festivals just like their counterparts in other part of the world, namely Christmas Day, Good Friday, Easter Monday, All Soul's Day, and Ascension Day. However, only Christmas and Good Friday are public holidays in Sarawak.[28]

Islam[edit]

Main article: Islam in Malaysia

Kuching Mosque

Islam is the second-largest religion in Sarawak, after Christianity. According to the 2020 census, 34.2% of Sarawak's population were Muslim.[21] All Malay-speaking Muslims are designated Malays by the Malaysian Constitution.[29] Malay Muslim culture contributes significantly to Sarawakian Muslim tradition as a whole especially for weddings, circumcision (coming of age ritual), 'majlis doa selamat', etc. Sarawak Malays were originally a mixture of Malay migrants from the rest of Southeast Asian archipelago that migrated to the area hundreds of years ago. They intermarried with local ethnic groups such as Pegu, Bliun and Seru, these ethnic groups were later absorbed into ethnic Sarawak Malay identity.[30]

Other ethnic groups such as Melanaus and Miriek have retained their languages in whole and have strong Islamic influence in their traditions from their ancestors. Sarawak was once home to various Islamic-Malay kingdoms such as Saribas, Melano, Santubong and Kalaka, etc.[31] They have also absorbed traditions from the Malaccan sultanate.[32] Melanaus, depending on which region or kampung they live in, are normally either Muslim or Christian (while a small number are pagans). Most of them live in Kuching, Matu, Mukah, Igan and Bintulu. About 65% of Melanau people are of the Sunni Muslim belief while the remaining 35% are either Christians or animists.[33]

Kedayan is another distinct ethnic group from Malay and Melanau, but have been Muslim since the time of the Brunei Sultanate, another ally of the Malaccan Sultanate [34] Although small in number, with the majority of their closest kin living in Brunei, they contribute to a majority of the Muslim population in Sibuti and Bekenu district. Despite being designated as a distinct ethnic group, they speak a dialect of Brunei Malay.

Administratively, Islam is under the authority of the state of Islamic Council, which is Majlis Islam Sarawak (MIS), a state government agency. Under MIS, there are various agencies dealing with various aspects of Islam such as Jabatan Agama Islam Sarawak (JAIS), Majlis Fatwa and Baitulmal Sarawak.[35]

Muslims in Sarawak observe all Islamic festivals, such as Hari Raya Aidilfitri (Puasa), Hari Raya Aidiladha (Haji), Awal Muharram and Maulidur Rasul. All these celebrations have been commenced as public holidays in Sarawak. However, Israk Mikraj, Awal Ramadhan and Nuzul Quran, although observed, are not public holidays.[36]

Buddhism/Taoism[edit]

Tua Pek Kong Temple, Sibu

Main article: Buddhism in Malaysia

Buddhism is the traditional religion of the overseas Chinese community in Sarawak, brought by their ancestors before the Cultural Revolution in China. According to the 2020 census, 12.8% of Sarawakians were Buddhist.[21] Many of the Sarawakian Chinese community, which comprises the bulk of the Buddhist population, actually practise a mixture of Buddhism, Taoism and Chinese folk religion. As there is no official name for this particular set of beliefs, many followers instead list down their religion as Buddhism, mainly for bureaucratic convenience. Buddhists from other ethnic especially Bumiputera are rare and almost insignificant to be related with, perhaps in small community with humble and low profile practice of the Buddhist ceremony among some Bumiputra

people in Sarawak.

Buddhists in Sarawak observe Wesak Day. It is a public holiday in Sarawak.

Hinduism[edit]

Main article: Hinduism in Malaysia

Unlike their fellow Peninsular Malaysians, Sarawak Hindus are very small in number. Almost all Hindus in Sarawak are Indians, while some are Chinese and other indigenous people through inter-marriages. There are less than 10 Hindu temples throughout Sarawak, most of them are located in Kuching and Miri. Currently there are 5,000 Hindus (representing 0.2% of the population) in Sarawak.

Hindus in Sarawak observe Deepavali and Thaipusam. However, none of these festivals are public holidays in Sarawak.

Sikhism[edit]

Main article: Sikhism in Malaysia

Gurdwara Sahib in Kuching

The first Gurdwara was built in 1911 in Kuching, built by the Sikh community of pioneers in the state, mainly police and security personnel. At the present, there are four known Gurdwaras in the state, with one each located in Kuching, Miri, Sibu and Bau, with the latter no longer in existence since the late 1950s, due to the fact that there were no longer any Sikhs in that area.

Besides being used as places of worship, the Gurdwaras also hold weekly Gurmukhi classes and also serve as community centres for the thriving Sikh community.

Baháʼí Faith[edit]

Main article: Baháʼí Faith

Baháʼí is one of the recognised religions in Sarawak. Various races embraced the Baháʼí Faith, from Chinese to Iban, Bidayuh, Bisayahs, Penans and Indians. In towns, the majority Baháʼí community is often Chinese, but in rural communities, they are of all races, Ibans, Bidayuhs, etc. In some schools, Baháʼí associations or clubs for students exist.

Baháʼí communities are now found in all the various divisions of Sarawak. However, these communities do not accept assistance from government or other organisations for activities which are strictly for Baháʼís. If, however, these services extend to include non-Baháʼís also, e.g. education for children's classes adult literacy, then sometimes the community does accept assistance.

The administration of the Baháʼí Faith is through Local Spiritual Assemblies. There is no priesthood among the Baháʼís. Election is held annually without nomination or electioneering. The Baháʼís should study the community and seek those members who display mature experience, loyalty, are knowledgeable in the Faith.

There are more than 45,000 Baháʼís in more than 230 localities in Sarawak.

Animism[edit]

Main article: Animism

Many Dayak especially Iban continue to practice traditional ceremonies, particularly with dual marriage rites and during the important harvest and ancestral festivals such as Gawai Dayak, Gawai Kenyalang and Gawai Antu.

Other ethnicities who have a rapidly dwindling and trace amount of animism practitioners are Melanau and Bidayuh.

See also[edit]

Demographics of Sabah

Demographics of Malaysia

References[edit]

^ "Taburan Penduduk dan Ciri-ciri asas demografi (Population Distribution and Basic demographic characteristics 2010)" (PDF). Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 May 2014. Retrieved 11 December 2015. p. 13 [26/156]

^ "TABURAN PENDUDUK MENGIKUT PBT & MUKIM 2010". Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Retrieved 15 December 2017.

^ "Iban as a koine language in Sarawak". 1 May 2023.

^ a b c d Journey Malaysia. Journey Malaysia. Retrieved on 29 August 2021.

^ Tourism Malaysia USA Archived 20 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Tourism Malaysia USA. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ LongHuse Archived 5 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Longhouse.org.my (15 October 2009). Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Vtaide. Vtaide. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Heesyam, Faizal. (27 July 2010) Discover Borneo. Discover Borneo. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ XFab Archived 15 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. XFab. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Sri Lankan News Web Archived 24 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Srilankanewsweb.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Bulan, Solomon and Bulan-Dorai, L (2014), The Bario Revival, HomeMatters Network

^ Discover Borneo. Discover Borneo. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Gomiri Archived 20 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Gomiri. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ a b Museum of Learning. Museumstuff.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Melanau | The Grown Ups. Swingrownups.wordpress.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ "Some Aspects of Iban-Maloh Contact in West Kalimantan" (PDF). 7 May 2023.

^ "Asal usul Melayu Sarawak: Menjejaki titik tak pasti". 1 May 2023.

^ McArthur, M. S. H. (1987). Report on Brunei in 1904. Ohio University Center for International Studies.

^ Al-Sufri, M. J., & Hassan, M. A. (2000). Tarsilah Brunei: the early history of Brunei up to 1432 AD (Vol. 1). Brunei History Centre, Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports.

^ a b Zepp, Raymond (March 1989). "The Chinese in Sarawak". Bulletin de Sinologie. Nouvelle Série. French Centre for Research on Contemporary China (53): 19–21. JSTOR 43436606.

^ a b c d e "Census Dashboard". Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Retrieved 1 March 2023.

^ Tititudorancea. Tititudorancea. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Sneddon, James N. (2003), The Indonesian language: its history and role in modern society, University of New South Wales Press, ISBN 0-86840-598-1, pp. 74–77

^ Hock Guan, Lee (April 2018). "The ISEAS Borneo Survey: Autonomy, Identity, Islam and Language/Education in Sarawak" (PDF). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. 19: 3–8.

^ Ruling coalition holds Malaysia's Christian-majority state, Union of Catholic Asian News, Dec 2021

^ Travel Malaysia. Go2travelmalaysia.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

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^ Tititudorrancea. Tititudorancea.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ "Mencari kaum yang hilang di Sarawak". 29 July 2016.

^ Al-Sufri, M. J. (1990). Tarsilah Brunei: sejarah awal dan perkembangan Islam (Vol. 1). Jabatan Pusat Sejarah, Kementerian Kebudayaan Belia dan Sukan.

^ Andaya, Barbara Watson; Andaya, Leonard Y. (2015). A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400-1830. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88992-6.

^ Borneo Tropicana. Borneo Tropicana. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann K. S.; Lewis, Bernard (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 2A, The Indian Sub-Continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim West. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29137-8.

^ Travel Malaysia. Go2travelmalaysia.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Go Malaysia. Go Malaysia. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

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vteState of SarawakCapital: KuchingHistory

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1Ethnic groups of Sarawak

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1.1Maps

2Dayak people

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2.1Iban

2.2Bidayuh

2.2.1Salako & Lara

3Orang Ulu

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3.1Kayan

3.2Lun Bawang

3.3Kelabit

3.4Kenyah

3.5Penan

3.6Punan Bah

3.7Sebop

3.8Tagal

4Bisaya

5Melanau

6Malay

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6.1Sarawakian Malay

6.2Kedayan

6.3Javanese

6.4Bugis

7Indian/South Asian

8Eurasian

9Sinitic people

10Religions of Sarawak

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10.1Christianity

10.2Islam

10.3Buddhism/Taoism

10.4Hinduism

10.5Sikhism

10.6Baháʼí Faith

10.7Animism

11See also

12References

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Historical populationYearPop.±% 1970 976,269—     1980 1,235,553+26.6% 1991 1,642,771+33.0% 2000 2,009,893+22.3% 2010 2,399,839+19.4% 2021 2,470,000+2.9%Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org.Source: Department of Statistics, Malaysia (2021)

Sarawak's population is very diverse, comprising many races and ethnic groups. Sarawak has more than 40 sub-ethnic groups, each with its own distinct language, culture and lifestyle. This makes Sarawak demography very distinct and unique compared to its Peninsular counterpart. However, it largely mirrors to other territories in Borneo - Sabah, Brunei and Kalimantan.

Ethnic groups of Sarawak[edit]

Ethnic groups in Sarawak[1]

  Iban (28.8%)  Malay (22.9%)  Chinese (23.3%)  Bidayuh (8%)  Other Bumiputeras (mainly Orang Ulu) (6.3%)  Melanau (4.9%)  Non-Malaysians (4.7%)  Others (0.6%)

A Modern Iban Longhouse, built using new materials and preserving essential features of communal living

Iban girls dressed in full Iban (women) attire during Gawai festivals in Debak, Betong region, Sarawak

In general, there are several major ethnic groups in Sarawak: Iban, Chinese , Malay, Bidayuh, Orang Ulu, Melanau and several minor ethnic groups placed collectively under 'Others', such as Indian, Eurasian, Kedayan, Javanese, Bugis, Murut and many more.

Maps[edit]

Below are distribution of ethnic groups in Sarawak by state constituencies, based on 2020 census.[2]

Iban

Malay

Chinese

Bidayuh

Melanau

Dayak people[edit]

The Dayak of Sarawak comprises the Iban and Bidayuh.

Iban[edit]

Main article: Iban people

Sea Dayaks (Iban) women from Rejang, Sarawak, wearing rattan corsets decorated with brass rings and filigree adornments. The family adds to the corset dress as the girl ages and based on her family's wealth.

The Ibans comprise the largest percentage (28.8%) of Sarawak's population. Iban is native to Borneo and their ancestral homeland is located in the Upper Kapuas, West Kalimantan before their migrations to Sarawak from the 1750s.[3] Formerly reputed to be the most formidable headhunters on the island of Borneo, the Ibans of today are a generous, hospitable and placid people.[4]

Because of their history as farmers, pirates and fishermen, Ibans were conventionally referred to as the "Sea Dayaks". The early Iban settlers migrated from Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of Borneo south of Sarawak, via the Kapuas River. They crossed over the Kelingkang range and set up home in the river valleys of Batang Ai, the Skrang River, Saribas, and the Rajang River. The Ibans dwell in longhouses, stilted structures with a large number of rooms housing a whole community of families.[4]

An Iban longhouse may still display head trophies or antu pala. These suspended heads mark tribal victories and were a source of honour. The Dayak Iban ceased practising headhunting in the 1930s.[4]

The Ibans are renowned for their Pua Kumbu (traditional Iban weavings), silver craft, wooden carvings and bead work. Iban tattoos, which were originally symbols of bravery among Iban warriors, have become amongst the most distinctive in the world.[4] The Ibans are also famous for a sweet rice wine called tuak, which is served during big celebrations and festive occasions.[5]

The large majority of Ibans practise Christianity. However, like most other ethnic groups in Sarawak, they still observe many of their traditional rituals and beliefs. Sarawak Iban celebrates colourful festivals such as the generic all-encomposing Gawai Dayak (harvest festival) which is a recent invention and thus held by all Dayak tribes including Iban, Bidayuh and Orang Ulu regardless of their religion. The major festivals of the Iban people are Gawai Bumai (Rice Farming Festival) that includes at least four stages i.e. Gawai Batu (Whetstone Festival), Gawai Benih (Seed Festival), Gawai Ngemali Umai / Jagok (Farm-Healing Festival), Gawai Matah (Harvest-Starting Festival) and Gawai Basimpan (Paddy Safekeeping Festival), Gawai Tuah (Fortune Festival) that comprises Gawai Namaka Tuah (Fortune-Welcoming Festival), Gawai Tajau (Jar Festival) and Gawai Pangkong Tiang (House Post Banging Festival), Gawai Sakit (Healing Festival) including Pelian by a manang shaman, Renong Sakit and Sugi Sakit by a lemambang bard, Gawai Antu (festival of the dead) to honour ancestors and the rarely celebrated but the most elaborate and complex Gawai Burong (Bird Festival) with nine ascending stages in the Saribas/Skrang region or Gawai Amat (Real Festival) in the Baleh region with eight degrees as listed by Masing.

Due to the natural culture of bajalai (sojurn) among Ibans mainly in search of jobs, there is a thriving Iban population of between 300,000 and 350,000 in Johor, found mostly in the area between Pasir Gudang and Masai on the eastern end of the Johor Bahru metropolitan area. Sizeable Iban communities are also present in Kuala Lumpur and Penang, likewise seeking employment. Most will return home during the Gawai Dayak.

Bidayuh[edit]

Main article: Bidayuh

Concentrated mainly on the west end of Borneo, the Bidayuhs make up 8% of the population in Sarawak are now most numerous in the hill counties of Lundu, Bau, Penrissen, Padawan, Siburan and Serian, within an hour's drive from Kuching.

Historically, as other tribes were migrating into Sarawak and forming settlements including a degree of historical Malayisation mainly taken place in the coastal areas, the Bidayuhs retreated further inland, hence earning them the name of "Land Dayaks" or "land owners". The word Bidayuh in itself literally means "land people" in Biatah dialect. In Bau-Jagoi/Singai dialect, the pronunciation is "Bidoyoh" which also carry the same meaning.

The traditional community construction of the Bidayuh is the "baruk", a roundhouse that rises about 1.5 metres off the ground. It serves as the granary and the meeting house for the settlement's community. Longhouses were typical in the olden days, similar to that of the Ibans.

Typical of the Sarawak indigenous groups, the Bidayuhs are well known for their hospitality, and are reputed to be the best makers of tuak, or rice wine. Bidayuhs also use distilling methods to make arak tonok, a kind of moonshine.[6]

The Bidayuhs speak a number of different but related dialects. Some Bidayuhs speak either Iban or Sarawak Malay as their main language. While some of them still practise traditional religions, the majority of modern-day Bidayuhs have adopted the Christian faith with a few villages embracing the Islamic faith as a minority group within the Bidayuh community.

Salako & Lara[edit]

This ethnic group forms a small minority with very little or no comprehensive studies done by any party on their dialect, culture/customs and history. Although classified as Bidayuh by the Malaysian government for political convenience, the Salako and Lara culture have nothing in common with the other Bidayuh groups and their oral tradition claim different descent and migration histories. It is understandable that since this group is living within Bidayuh-majority areas and the fact that they also prefer to stay in one permanent inland area, most probably for agricultural reasons instead of branching out to other locations as opposed to the other races, they are grouped together as Land Dayaks.

This tribal community is believed to have originated from Gajing Mountain, at the source of Salakau River, near Singkawang in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Their language is completely different and not intelligible with the other spoken Bidayuh dialects in the other districts. They are mainly found concentrated in the Lundu area. In August 2001, the Salako and Lara community set up the Salako-Lara Association to safe guard and preserve their culture and custom for the future generations.

Orang Ulu[edit]

Main article: Orang Ulu

A Kayan man, playing the Sapeh

Orang Ulu is an ethnic group in Sarawak. The various Orang Ulu groups together make up to 6.3% of Sarawak's population. The phrase Orang Ulu means upriver people and is a term used to collectively describe the numerous tribes that live upriver in Sarawak's vast interior. Such groups include the major Kayan and Kenyah tribes, and the smaller neighbouring groups of the Kajang, Kejaman, Punan, Ukit, and Penan. Nowadays, the definition also includes the down-river tribes of the Lun Bawang, Lun Dayeh, "mean upriver" or "far upstream", Berawan, Saban as well as the plateau-dwelling Kelabits. Orang Ulu is a term coined officially by the government to identify several ethnics and sub-ethnics who live mostly at the upriver and uphill areas of Sarawak. Most of them live in the district of Baram, Miri, Belaga, Limbang and Lawas.

The Orang Ulu are artistic people with longhouses elaborately decorated with murals and woodcarvings.[7] They are also well known for their intricate beadwork and detailed tattoos. The Orang Ulu tribe can also be identified by their unique musical sound made by a sapeh, a stringed instrument similar to a mandolin.

The vast majority of the Orang Ulu tribe are Christians but traditional religions are still practised in some areas.

Some of the major tribes making up the Orang Ulu group include:

Kayan[edit]

There are approximately 43,000 Kayans in Sarawak. The Kayan tribe built their longhouses in the northern interiors of Sarawak midway on the Baram River, the upper Rejang River and the lower Tubau River, and were traditionally headhunters.

They are well known for their boat making skills. The Kayan people carve from a single block of belian, the strongest of the tropical hardwoods.[8]

Although many Kayan have become Christians, some still practise paganistic beliefs, but this is becoming more rare.[9]

Lun Bawang[edit]

The Lun Bawang are indigenous to the highlands of East Kalimantan, Brunei (Temburong District), southwest of Sabah (Interior Division) and northern region of Sarawak (Limbang Division). Lun Bawang people are traditionally agriculturalists and rear poultry, pigs and buffalo.

Lun Bawangs are also known to be hunters and fishermen. Alternatively, they are also collectively called the Murut of Sarawak and are closely related to the Lun Dayeh of Sabah , Kalimantan and Murut Brunei.[10]

Kelabit[edit]

With a population of approximately 6000, the Kelabit are inhabitants of Bario – a remote plateau in the Sarawak Highlands, slightly over 1,200 meters above sea level. The Kelabits form a tight-knit agrarian community and practicing unique agricultural practices for generations. Famous for their rice-farming, they also cultivate a variety of other crops which are suited to the cooler climate of the Highlands of Bario. The Kelabits are closely related to the Lun Bawang.

The Kelabit are predominantly Christian, the Bario Highlands having been visited by Christian missionaries many years ago. A Christian revival, the Bario revival changed them.[11]

Kenyah[edit]

With the population about 64,000, the Kenyah inhabit the Upper Belaga and upper Baram. There is little historical evidence regarding the exact origin of the Kenyah tribe. Their heartland however, is Long San, along the Baram River and Belaga along Rajang River. Their culture is very similar to that of the Kayan tribe with whom they live in close association.

The typical Kenyah village consists of only one longhouse. Most inhabitants are farmers, planting rice in burnt jungle clearings. With the rapid economic development, especially in timber industry, many of them work in timber camps.[citation needed]

Penan[edit]

The Penan are the only true nomadic people in Sarawak and are amongst the last of the world's hunter-gatherers.[1] The Penan make their home under the rainforest canopy, deep within the vast expanse of Sarawak's jungles. Even today, the Penan continue to roam the rainforest hunting wild boar and deer with blowpipes.[citation needed]

The Penan are skilled weavers and make high-quality rattan baskets and mats. The traditional Penan religion worships a supreme god called Bungan. However, the increasing number who have abandoned the nomadic lifestyle for settlement in longhouses have converted to Christianity.[12]

Punan Bah[edit]

Main article: Punan Bah people

Not to be confused with the Penan, the Punan Bah or Punan is a distinct ethnic group found in Sarawak, Malaysia. They are mostly found around the Bintulu area and also in Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of Borneo. They live on a mixed economy, engaging in swidden style of agriculture, with hill paddy as the main crop & supplemented by a range of other tropical plants. Hunting, fishing, and gathering of forest resources are the other important contributors to their economy. In recent times, many of the educated younger generation gradually migrated to urban areas such as Bintulu, Sibu, Kuching and Kuala Lumpur in search of better living & returning home occasionally, especially during major festivities such as Harvest Festival / or Bungan festival.

At the moment, the term Punan is often indiscriminately & collectively used to refer to the then unknown or yet to be classified tribes as such as Punan Busang, Penihing, Sajau Hovongan, Uheng Kareho, Merah, Aput, Tubu, Bukat, Ukit, Habongkot and Penyawung. There has been no effort to comprehensively study or research on this ensemble of tribes; these communities lack the privilege and are deprived of their rights to be recognised as individual & unique races (with their own tradition, language & cultural heritage) within the nation's list of ethnic classification, resulting to more than 20 different tribes / ethnics (unrelated to one another) found on the island of Borneo being lumped together into one ethnic group, which includes;

Punan Busang

Punan Penihing

Punan Batu

Punan Sajau

Punan Hovongan of Kapuas Hulu, West Kalimantan

Punan Uheng Kereho of Kapuas Hulu, West Kalimantan

Punan Murung of Murung Raya, Central Kalimantan

Punan Aoheng (Suku Dayak Pnihing) of East Kalimantan

Punan Merah (Siau)

Punan Aput

Punan Merap

Punan Tubu

Punan Ukit/Bukitan

Dayak Bukat

Punan Habongkot

Punan Panyawung

Sebop[edit]

The Sebop is one of the least known groups in Sarawak and they can be found in upper Tinjar river in the Miri Division of Sarawak. Within the Sebup group are the sub-groups that include Long Pekun, Maleng, Lirong, Long Kapah, Long Lubang, Teballau and Long Suku. Cultural researchers acknowledged that there is a Sebop stream in the Usun Apau from which the Sebop got their ethnic name. The Sebup ancestors were said to have lived in the adjacent valleys on the southern side of Usun Apau namely; Seping, Menapun, Menawan and Luar rivers before they moved north towards the Tinjar. Today the Sebup are found in Long Luyang, Long Batan, Long Selapun, Long Pala, Long Nuwah and Long Subeng. Amongst the longhouses, Long Luyang is the longest and most populated Sebop settlement. It comprises more than 100 units.

The Sebop are Christians and their cultural festival is Pesta Coen, a celebration that was used to mark the successful returned of their warriors (Lakin Ayau) from the battlefield. Today it is celebrated as a social cultural festival for everyone to return to the longhouse. Among the highlights of the celebration are the raising up of the gigantic ceremonial pole (Kelebong) as well as the traditional dances and songs.

Tagal[edit]

Main article: Murut people

Also known as "Murut Sabah", "Tagal" or "hill people", this indigenous subgroup of the Murut people can be found inhabiting the lowland areas around Lawas & Limbang. They are part of an interstate ethnic group that is found highly concentrated along the borderlands and inland areas of Sabah, Brunei, Kalimantan and Sarawak, with the majority in the former.

The Tagal are mostly shifting cultivators, with some hunting and riverine fishing on the side. They use the Tagol Murut language as the lingua franca of the whole group. It belongs to the North Bornean subdivision of the Austronesian language family. A majority of the Tagal people are Christians, with a few Muslims.

Bisaya[edit]

Main article: Bisaya (Borneo)

The Bisaya are an indigenous people, concentrated around the Limbang river in northern Sarawak state. Most Sarawakian Bisaya are Christians. The Bisaya are also found in Sabah (around Kuala Penyu and Beaufort). In Sabah, the majority of them are Muslims; the minority practice Christianity. Some of them still practice Paganism. They are believed to be distantly related to the Visayan of the Philippines. Legend belief is such that in the distant past, there were large migration of Bisaya to The Philippines. However the Bisaya dialect is more related to Malay language than the Philippines Visaya language. Such similarities may be due to the standardising effect and influence of the Malay Language has over the Borneon Bisaya as well as all other ethnic languages spoken in Malaysia.

Bisaya’s indigenous people have settled in Borneo for a long time. They are skilled in agriculture such as paddy planting and cultivation of gingers. They also hunt wild animals and rear domestic animals such as chicken, goat and buffaloes. Bisaya people are also skilled in catching fish, both in the rivers and sea.

Melanau[edit]

A replica of a traditional Melanau House

Main article: Melanau

The Melanaus have been thought to be amongst the original settlers of Sarawak.[13] They make up 4.9% of the population in Sarawak.

Originally from Mukah (the 10th Administrative Division as launched in March 2002), the Melanaus traditionally lived in tall houses. Nowadays, they have adopted a Malay lifestyle, living in kampong-type settlements. Traditionally, Melanaus were fishermen and still today, they are reputed as some of the finest boat-builders and craftsmen.[14]

While the Melanaus are ethnically different from the Malays, their lifestyles and practices are quite similar. This is especially the case in the larger towns and cities where most Melanau have adopted the Islamic faith.[15]

The Melanaus were believed to originally summon spirits in a practice verging on paganism. Today most of the Melanaus are Muslims whilst some were converted to Christianity (especially around Mukah & Dalat areas). However some still celebrate traditional animist festivals such as the annual Kaul festival in Mukah District.

Malay[edit]

Sarawakian Malay[edit]

Traditional Sarawakian Malay home

The Malays make up 22.9% of the population in Sarawak. Sarawak was a home for several former native Malay kingdoms, including the Sarawak Sultanate (1598–1641), Banting (16th century), Saribas (15th century), Samarahan (13th century) and Santubong (7th century).

Similar to the ethnogenesis development in many parts of Borneo, a large number of the Malays in Sarawak are indigenous to the land and were historically descendant from various native Bornean tribes that have adopted the Malay culture, language and the Islamic faith for centuries, drawn in a process known as Malayisation (Masuk Melayu).[16][17] At the same time, there are also other Sarawakian Malays that can traced their lineage from a diverse origin and ancestries, including Brunei, Sumatera, Natuna, Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan and other regions.

Traditionally fishermen, these seafaring people chose to form settlements on the banks of the many rivers of Sarawak, while others (the native tribes) were absorbed into the Malay identity since most of the historical contacts, religious conversion and assimilation were predominantly taken place in the rivers and coastal areas. Today, many Malays have migrated to the cities where they are heavily involved in the public and private sectors and taken up various professions.

Malay villages, known as Kampungs, are a cluster of wooden houses on stilts, many of which are still located by rivers on the outskirts of major towns and cities, play home to traditional cottage industries. The Malays are famed for their wood carvings, silver and brass craftings as well as traditional Malay textile weaving with silver and gold thread (kain songket). Malay in Sarawak have a distinct dialect which is called Sarawak Malay. It has many elements of the Sambas language spoken before contact with the Bruneian sultanate. The culture of Sarawakian Malay is also somewhat unusual such as bermukun, Sarawak zapin, and keringkam weaving. It is possible, though insufficient studies exist, that these are remnants of the Sambas sultanate’s culture, prior to a change in identity and the speaking of a unique hybrid of Malay-Sambas by the previously Sambas speaking natives.

In Federal Constitution, Malays are Muslim by religion, having been converted to the faith some 600 years ago with the Islamification of the native region. Their religion is reflected in their culture and art and Islamic symbolism is evident in local architecture – from homes to government buildings. In Malaysia, people of Indonesian descent: Javanese, Bugis, and Banjar are constitutionally classified as Malays, and have the same rights should they become a citizen.

Kedayan[edit]

Main article: Kedayan

The Kedayan are an ethnic group residing in parts of Sarawak. They are also known as Kadayan, Kadaian or simply badly spelled as Kadyan by the British. The Kedayan language is spoken by more than 35,000 people in Sarawak, with most of the members of the Kedayan community residing in Lawas, Limbang, Miri and Sibuti areas. A sizable community also exists in Brunei Darussalam and Sabah.

The Kedayans is believed to have Javanese origins. The British Resident Malcolm McArthur attests to their Javanese origins in his Report on Brunei 1904.[18] Meanwhile, historians such as Pehin Jamil claimed the Kedayans were bought over from Java to Borneo by Sultan Bolkiah the 5th during his famous conquests of Borneo.[19] This was due to the Kedayan's prowess in padi farming and other agricultural abilities. Other researchers consider them indigenous to Borneo, having accepted Islam and influenced by Malay culture, primarily by Bruneians.

Kedayan are mainly padi farmers or fishermen. They have a reputation for knowledge of medicinal plants, which they grow to treat a wide range of ailments or to make tonics. The Kedayan tend to settle inland in a cluster pattern, with houses built in the centre and with fields radiating outwards. The Kedayans traditionally tended to be a rather closed community, discouraging contact with outsiders. Intermarriage among relatives was encouraged for economic and social reasons.

Javanese[edit]

Main article: Javanese people

The present generation are descended from the original ethnic Javanese people, the majority from the province of Central Java, who arrived in Sarawak as "kuli kontrak", indentured servants who were brought in by the Dutch via Batavia (modern-day Jakarta) during the late 1800s to the 1940s & transferred to a British company to work in the rubber plantations. After the end of their contracts, some of them had decided to settle down & work on land no longer producing rubber. Over the years, these labourers were prosperous & were later given the right of ownership to several hectares of land.

An estimated 5,000 Javanese people are found all over the state, establishing their own villages, with the majority concentrated in Kuching & its surrounding areas. Some of the younger generation still carry traditional Javanese names & are identified as ethnic Javanese in their birth certificates. They are proud of their heritage; the current population still speak the language of their parents & retaining their age-old traditions & practices of their forefathers.

The friendly Javanese are traditionally Muslims, so they have a strong affinity with the Malays, with many of them intermarrying & living within Malay-majority areas & also other communities. They use Sarawak Malay or English as a common lingua franca to communicate with the other ethnic groups.

Bugis[edit]

Main article: Bugis

The Bugis are an ethnic group which had originated from the southwestern province of Sulawesi, Indonesia. They are renowned around the archipelago as adventurous seafarers and merchants, establishing trading routes with other ports along Sarawak's coastal areas over the past few centuries, eventually settling down with their families or taking up local spouses. The Bugis artisans are noted for their expertise in building tongkangs & proas, plying their skills at the fishing villages and local dockyards. They are also skilled farmers, construction workers, traders and fishermen.

The Bugis population in Sarawak is scattered throughout the state. Many can be found living along the coast alongside or within other communities and also opening up small agricultural settlements further inland, especially in the Sarikei district. They are predominantly Muslims and many have amalgamated with the local Muslim society through marriage.

Indian/South Asian[edit]

Main article: Malaysian Indian Main article: South Asian

The Indians and generally South Asians in Sarawak are a small geographical and ethno-cultural community, estimated to be between 6,500 people (figure also includes those of mixed parentage and professionals, students and residents from other parts of Malaysia), found mainly in the urban exteriors of Kuching and Miri division. The majority of Indians in Sarawak are Tamils. There are also other Indians minorities from the Punjabi Sikhs, Telugus, Sindhis and Keralites ethnic groups.

The Sikhs were among the earliest South Asians to set foot on Sarawak's soil, recruited by the first White Rajah, Sir James Brooke in Singapore as police officers to bring peace, law and order during the 1857 Chinese uprising in Bau. At a much later stage, the Sikhs were employed as security personnel for the Sarawak Shell Company in Miri and also as government-appointed prison wardens. It is also believed that there were a few Sikhs in the Sarawak Rangers, which was formed in 1872.

As for the Tamils and other minority Indian ethnic groups, their history in the state began during the 1860s, when they were brought in from South India by the second White Rajah Charles Brooke to work in the tea and coffee plantations at Matang Hills. They were also traders and travelers visiting the state for religious, educational or business opportunities. After many years, the South Asian community had extended to include newer immigrants from Sri Lanka, Pakistan and other areas in India. The Indian Muslims were prominent in the restaurant business, textile trade & Indian food production. They were also instrumentally significant in their contribution to the Islamic fellowship and religious welfare in the state with their Muslim Malay brethren.

Many of the present-day Sarawak South Asians are from mixed marriages with the Malays, Chinese & other Sarawak native ethnic groups, with many of the younger generation using English, Sarawak Malay or one of the native or Chinese dialects to communicate with everybody else. They have assimilated well within the state's general population as a culturally distinct group in Sarawak that is rather unique as opposed to the Indian diaspora of Peninsular Malaysia and the Asian region in general. A number of Sarawak Indians can be found working as doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers and other professional careers in the government and private sectors.

Eurasian[edit]

Mixed marriages/unions between Europeans and local spouses have been going on for centuries, since the time European traders, sailors and colonists first set foot on Sarawak's soils.

The Eurasians in Sarawak continues to be the smallest of minorities, with many of them rather identifying themselves with the major racial denomination of their local parent rather than that of their European, Australian or American parent, as the local state government does not formally classify them as an official ethnicity. At the moment, the exact number of people in the local Eurasian community is not known, as many of them registered themselves (for administrative and social ease) as Iban, Bidayuh, Chinese, Malay, Melanau, Orang Ulu, Indian or simply under "others". Besides assimilating themselves into the general populace, many of them had also migrated to Peninsular Malaysia or their foreign parents' countries of origin.

The local Eurasians established the Sarawak Eurasian Association (SEA) in the year 2000 to foster closer ties among members of this community and also to raise awareness on the existence of this distinct group. Their association is quite unique, if compared to the Eurasian associations of Peninsular Malaysia, as it is composed by members of different religious faiths.

Sinitic people[edit]

A Paifang in Malaysia-China Friendship Park, Kuching

Main article: Malaysian Chinese

Chinese records has shown that China had a trading contact with Borneo as early as 600 A.D. when a country known as "Po Ni" (present day Brunei) sent tribute to Tang Emperor. When British explorer James Brooke arrived in Borneo in 1839, there were several hundred Chinese working in pepper plantations there. The first Hakka migrants worked as labourers in the gold mines at Bau. This was followed by the migration of Fuzhou people to the Rajang basin in 1900s, working as farmers in cash crop industries such as pepper, rubber, sago, and oil palm. Meanwhile, Hokkien people from the Xiamen area, worked as merchants. Lastly, the Cantonese people, who made up majority of the sinitic people population in the Peninsular Malaysia, not been really attracted to Sarawak.[20]

As of 1989, 30% of Sarawak Chinese population was made up of ethnic Hakka, followed by Fuzhounese (30%), Hokkien (12%), and Cantonese (8%). The Sinitic people made up 73% of the population in Kuching and 77% in Sibu.[20]

Through their clan associations, business acumen and work ethic, the Sinitic people organised themselves economically and rapidly dominated commerce. Today, the Sinitic people are amongst Sarawak's most prosperous ethnic groups.

Today, they make up 17.1% of the population of Sarawak (as reported by Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM) in 2021), and consist of communities built from the economic migrants of the 19th and early 20th centuries.

The Sarawak Sinitic people belong to a wide range of ethnic groups, the most significant being:

Hakka

Hokkien

Chaoshanese

Teochew

Shanghainese

Hainanese

Kwongsai

Cantonese

Minnanese

Fujianese

Fuzhounese

Puxian Min

Whereas Hakka is spoken predominantly by the farmers in the interior, Hokkien and Teochew are the dominant languages spoken within the major trading towns and among early traders and businessmen. Hainanese (a.k.a. Hailam) were well known as coffee-shop operators, the Henghua are famous as fishermen. The notable difference between the Sarawakian Sinitic people and those presiding in West Malaysia is the latter’s common use of Cantonese. Malaysian Mandarin however, has become the unifying language spoken by all the distinct ethnic groups with sinitic origins in both East and West Malaysia, replicating China. The Hakka people in Kuching, Sarawak came from Jieyang, Guangdong. The Hokkien came from Zhao'an, Fujian. The Teochew came from Shantou and Chaozhou in Guangdong, the Shanghainese came from Shanghai, Hainanese from Hainan, Cantonese from Guangdong, Fuzhounese from Fuzhou, Fujian. The Kwongsai people came from Guangxi, Chaoshanese people came from Chaoshan, Minnanese people came from Xiamen, Lastly the Henghuas or Hinghwa or Puxian people from Putian, Fujian.

The Sinitic people maintain their ethnic heritage and culture and celebrate all the major cultural festivals, most notably Lunar New Year, the Hungry Ghost Festival and Christmas. The Sarawak Sinitic people are predominantly Buddhists and Christians.

Religions of Sarawak[edit]

Religion in Sarawak (2022)[21]

Religion

Percent

Christianity

 

50.1%

Islam

 

34.2%

Buddhism

 

12.8%

No religion

 

2.2%

Others

 

0.5%

Christianity is the largest religion in Sarawak, representing 50.1% of the total population according to the 2020 census.[21] Sarawakians practice a variety of religions, including Christianity, Chinese folk religion (a fusion of Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism and ancestor worship), Islam, Baha’i Faith and animism.[22] Unsurprisingly, the issue of Islam as state religion divides the Muslim and non-Muslims with a contrasting 85% supporting and opposing, respectively. Nevertheless, 93% of Sarawakians consider their regional Sarawak identity to be their first choice in defining themselves which is in stark contrast to Peninsular Malaysia where 55% see religion as their most important identity marker. This is in line with the Malaccan Sultanate from which the Malay language and culture stems.[23] Adopting a common name, language and religion has united the various West Malaysian indigenous communities and many Sambas indigenous people of Kuching. Sarawakians across all religions express majority support for increased autonomy for the state - at 76% overall.[24]

Christianity[edit]

Main article: Christianity in Malaysia

St. Joseph's Cathedral, Kuching, a Roman Catholic cathedral in Kuching, Sarawak.

Christianity makes up the largest religion in Sarawak. Sarawak is the state with the highest percentage of Christians in Malaysia and the only state with a Christian majority. According to the 2020 census, Christians make up 50.1% of the population of Sarawak.[21]

Protestants, mostly Anglicans, make up the majority, followed by more than 441,300 Catholics. [25] Other Christian denominations in Sarawak include Methodists, Borneo Evangelical Church (or Sidang Injil Borneo, S.I.B.) and Baptists. Many Sarawakian Christians are mostly non-Malay Bumiputera, ranging from Iban, Bidayuh, Orang Ulu, Murut and Melanau.

Denomination of Christians in Sarawak may vary according to their race, although this is not necessarily true. For example, most Chinese Christians are Methodists, most Ibans and Bidayuhs are either Roman Catholics or Anglicans, whilst most Orang Ulu are S.I.B.s. Church plays an important part in shaping morality of the communities, while many Christians view the church as a religious place. Professing Christianity has led to the abolition of some previous rituals by indigenous ethnics such as headhunting and improper disposal of dead bodies. Since the majority of people indigenous to Sarawak are Christians, these people have adopted Christian names in English or Italian, such as Valentino, Joseph, and Constantine. Almost 93% of the Iban, Kelabit, and Bidayuh have changed their traditional names to English names since they converted to Christianity. Many young indigenous Iban, Kelabit, and Bidayuh people in Sarawak will not practice the ceremonies of their ancestors such as Miring, the worship of Singalang Burung (local deity), and celebration of Gawai Antu. The Bidayuhs are mainly Pagans or animists before they convert to Christianity and they believe in ancestral worship and in the ancient spirits of nature. Due to this, they have big celebrations like the Gawai (1 June), which is a celebration to please the padi spirit for a good harvest and nowadays, since 60% of the population has converted to Christianity, the young Bidayuh generation will celebrate only Christmas as their first priority. Christians among indigenous ethnics have also embraced many Christian values such as preserving modesty and dedication to God.[14]

Christianity has also contributed to the betterment of the education system in Sarawak. There were a lot of missionary schools built during the 1950s to early 1980s.[26] Christianity has gained popularity throughout Sarawak, transcending race and religion. Due to federalisation of the education system, most of these missionary schools have been converted into government national schools. Participation of the church in these schools has been reduced. The Malaysian government has allowed the schools to continue using religious symbols on school buildings and teaching Christian values to non-Muslim students.[27]

Christians in Sarawak observe many Christian festivals just like their counterparts in other part of the world, namely Christmas Day, Good Friday, Easter Monday, All Soul's Day, and Ascension Day. However, only Christmas and Good Friday are public holidays in Sarawak.[28]

Islam[edit]

Main article: Islam in Malaysia

Kuching Mosque

Islam is the second-largest religion in Sarawak, after Christianity. According to the 2020 census, 34.2% of Sarawak's population were Muslim.[21] All Malay-speaking Muslims are designated Malays by the Malaysian Constitution.[29] Malay Muslim culture contributes significantly to Sarawakian Muslim tradition as a whole especially for weddings, circumcision (coming of age ritual), 'majlis doa selamat', etc. Sarawak Malays were originally a mixture of Malay migrants from the rest of Southeast Asian archipelago that migrated to the area hundreds of years ago. They intermarried with local ethnic groups such as Pegu, Bliun and Seru, these ethnic groups were later absorbed into ethnic Sarawak Malay identity.[30]

Other ethnic groups such as Melanaus and Miriek have retained their languages in whole and have strong Islamic influence in their traditions from their ancestors. Sarawak was once home to various Islamic-Malay kingdoms such as Saribas, Melano, Santubong and Kalaka, etc.[31] They have also absorbed traditions from the Malaccan sultanate.[32] Melanaus, depending on which region or kampung they live in, are normally either Muslim or Christian (while a small number are pagans). Most of them live in Kuching, Matu, Mukah, Igan and Bintulu. About 65% of Melanau people are of the Sunni Muslim belief while the remaining 35% are either Christians or animists.[33]

Kedayan is another distinct ethnic group from Malay and Melanau, but have been Muslim since the time of the Brunei Sultanate, another ally of the Malaccan Sultanate [34] Although small in number, with the majority of their closest kin living in Brunei, they contribute to a majority of the Muslim population in Sibuti and Bekenu district. Despite being designated as a distinct ethnic group, they speak a dialect of Brunei Malay.

Administratively, Islam is under the authority of the state of Islamic Council, which is Majlis Islam Sarawak (MIS), a state government agency. Under MIS, there are various agencies dealing with various aspects of Islam such as Jabatan Agama Islam Sarawak (JAIS), Majlis Fatwa and Baitulmal Sarawak.[35]

Muslims in Sarawak observe all Islamic festivals, such as Hari Raya Aidilfitri (Puasa), Hari Raya Aidiladha (Haji), Awal Muharram and Maulidur Rasul. All these celebrations have been commenced as public holidays in Sarawak. However, Israk Mikraj, Awal Ramadhan and Nuzul Quran, although observed, are not public holidays.[36]

Buddhism/Taoism[edit]

Tua Pek Kong Temple, Sibu

Main article: Buddhism in Malaysia

Buddhism is the traditional religion of the overseas Chinese community in Sarawak, brought by their ancestors before the Cultural Revolution in China. According to the 2020 census, 12.8% of Sarawakians were Buddhist.[21] Many of the Sarawakian Chinese community, which comprises the bulk of the Buddhist population, actually practise a mixture of Buddhism, Taoism and Chinese folk religion. As there is no official name for this particular set of beliefs, many followers instead list down their religion as Buddhism, mainly for bureaucratic convenience. Buddhists from other ethnic especially Bumiputera are rare and almost insignificant to be related with, perhaps in small community with humble and low profile practice of the Buddhist ceremony among some Bumiputra

people in Sarawak.

Buddhists in Sarawak observe Wesak Day. It is a public holiday in Sarawak.

Hinduism[edit]

Main article: Hinduism in Malaysia

Unlike their fellow Peninsular Malaysians, Sarawak Hindus are very small in number. Almost all Hindus in Sarawak are Indians, while some are Chinese and other indigenous people through inter-marriages. There are less than 10 Hindu temples throughout Sarawak, most of them are located in Kuching and Miri. Currently there are 5,000 Hindus (representing 0.2% of the population) in Sarawak.

Hindus in Sarawak observe Deepavali and Thaipusam. However, none of these festivals are public holidays in Sarawak.

Sikhism[edit]

Main article: Sikhism in Malaysia

Gurdwara Sahib in Kuching

The first Gurdwara was built in 1911 in Kuching, built by the Sikh community of pioneers in the state, mainly police and security personnel. At the present, there are four known Gurdwaras in the state, with one each located in Kuching, Miri, Sibu and Bau, with the latter no longer in existence since the late 1950s, due to the fact that there were no longer any Sikhs in that area.

Besides being used as places of worship, the Gurdwaras also hold weekly Gurmukhi classes and also serve as community centres for the thriving Sikh community.

Baháʼí Faith[edit]

Main article: Baháʼí Faith

Baháʼí is one of the recognised religions in Sarawak. Various races embraced the Baháʼí Faith, from Chinese to Iban, Bidayuh, Bisayahs, Penans and Indians. In towns, the majority Baháʼí community is often Chinese, but in rural communities, they are of all races, Ibans, Bidayuhs, etc. In some schools, Baháʼí associations or clubs for students exist.

Baháʼí communities are now found in all the various divisions of Sarawak. However, these communities do not accept assistance from government or other organisations for activities which are strictly for Baháʼís. If, however, these services extend to include non-Baháʼís also, e.g. education for children's classes adult literacy, then sometimes the community does accept assistance.

The administration of the Baháʼí Faith is through Local Spiritual Assemblies. There is no priesthood among the Baháʼís. Election is held annually without nomination or electioneering. The Baháʼís should study the community and seek those members who display mature experience, loyalty, are knowledgeable in the Faith.

There are more than 45,000 Baháʼís in more than 230 localities in Sarawak.

Animism[edit]

Main article: Animism

Many Dayak especially Iban continue to practice traditional ceremonies, particularly with dual marriage rites and during the important harvest and ancestral festivals such as Gawai Dayak, Gawai Kenyalang and Gawai Antu.

Other ethnicities who have a rapidly dwindling and trace amount of animism practitioners are Melanau and Bidayuh.

See also[edit]

Demographics of Sabah

Demographics of Malaysia

References[edit]

^ "Taburan Penduduk dan Ciri-ciri asas demografi (Population Distribution and Basic demographic characteristics 2010)" (PDF). Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 May 2014. Retrieved 11 December 2015. p. 13 [26/156]

^ "TABURAN PENDUDUK MENGIKUT PBT & MUKIM 2010". Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Retrieved 15 December 2017.

^ "Iban as a koine language in Sarawak". 1 May 2023.

^ a b c d Journey Malaysia. Journey Malaysia. Retrieved on 29 August 2021.

^ Tourism Malaysia USA Archived 20 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Tourism Malaysia USA. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ LongHuse Archived 5 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Longhouse.org.my (15 October 2009). Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Vtaide. Vtaide. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Heesyam, Faizal. (27 July 2010) Discover Borneo. Discover Borneo. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ XFab Archived 15 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. XFab. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Sri Lankan News Web Archived 24 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Srilankanewsweb.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Bulan, Solomon and Bulan-Dorai, L (2014), The Bario Revival, HomeMatters Network

^ Discover Borneo. Discover Borneo. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Gomiri Archived 20 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Gomiri. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ a b Museum of Learning. Museumstuff.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Melanau | The Grown Ups. Swingrownups.wordpress.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ "Some Aspects of Iban-Maloh Contact in West Kalimantan" (PDF). 7 May 2023.

^ "Asal usul Melayu Sarawak: Menjejaki titik tak pasti". 1 May 2023.

^ McArthur, M. S. H. (1987). Report on Brunei in 1904. Ohio University Center for International Studies.

^ Al-Sufri, M. J., & Hassan, M. A. (2000). Tarsilah Brunei: the early history of Brunei up to 1432 AD (Vol. 1). Brunei History Centre, Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports.

^ a b Zepp, Raymond (March 1989). "The Chinese in Sarawak". Bulletin de Sinologie. Nouvelle Série. French Centre for Research on Contemporary China (53): 19–21. JSTOR 43436606.

^ a b c d e "Census Dashboard". Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Retrieved 1 March 2023.

^ Tititudorancea. Tititudorancea. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Sneddon, James N. (2003), The Indonesian language: its history and role in modern society, University of New South Wales Press, ISBN 0-86840-598-1, pp. 74–77

^ Hock Guan, Lee (April 2018). "The ISEAS Borneo Survey: Autonomy, Identity, Islam and Language/Education in Sarawak" (PDF). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. 19: 3–8.

^ Ruling coalition holds Malaysia's Christian-majority state, Union of Catholic Asian News, Dec 2021

^ Travel Malaysia. Go2travelmalaysia.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Network Base. Networkbase.info. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ One Stop Malaysia Archived 21 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine. One Stop Malaysia. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Tititudorrancea. Tititudorancea.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ "Mencari kaum yang hilang di Sarawak". 29 July 2016.

^ Al-Sufri, M. J. (1990). Tarsilah Brunei: sejarah awal dan perkembangan Islam (Vol. 1). Jabatan Pusat Sejarah, Kementerian Kebudayaan Belia dan Sukan.

^ Andaya, Barbara Watson; Andaya, Leonard Y. (2015). A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400-1830. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88992-6.

^ Borneo Tropicana. Borneo Tropicana. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann K. S.; Lewis, Bernard (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 2A, The Indian Sub-Continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim West. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29137-8.

^ Travel Malaysia. Go2travelmalaysia.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Go Malaysia. Go Malaysia. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

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1Ethnic groups of Sarawak

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1.1Maps

2Dayak people

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2.1Iban

2.2Bidayuh

2.2.1Salako & Lara

3Orang Ulu

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3.1Kayan

3.2Lun Bawang

3.3Kelabit

3.4Kenyah

3.5Penan

3.6Punan Bah

3.7Sebop

3.8Tagal

4Bisaya

5Melanau

6Malay

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6.1Sarawakian Malay

6.2Kedayan

6.3Javanese

6.4Bugis

7Indian/South Asian

8Eurasian

9Sinitic people

10Religions of Sarawak

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10.1Christianity

10.2Islam

10.3Buddhism/Taoism

10.4Hinduism

10.5Sikhism

10.6Baháʼí Faith

10.7Animism

11See also

12References

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Historical populationYearPop.±% 1970 976,269—     1980 1,235,553+26.6% 1991 1,642,771+33.0% 2000 2,009,893+22.3% 2010 2,399,839+19.4% 2021 2,470,000+2.9%Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org.Source: Department of Statistics, Malaysia (2021)

Sarawak's population is very diverse, comprising many races and ethnic groups. Sarawak has more than 40 sub-ethnic groups, each with its own distinct language, culture and lifestyle. This makes Sarawak demography very distinct and unique compared to its Peninsular counterpart. However, it largely mirrors to other territories in Borneo - Sabah, Brunei and Kalimantan.

Ethnic groups of Sarawak[edit]

Ethnic groups in Sarawak[1]

  Iban (28.8%)  Malay (22.9%)  Chinese (23.3%)  Bidayuh (8%)  Other Bumiputeras (mainly Orang Ulu) (6.3%)  Melanau (4.9%)  Non-Malaysians (4.7%)  Others (0.6%)

A Modern Iban Longhouse, built using new materials and preserving essential features of communal living

Iban girls dressed in full Iban (women) attire during Gawai festivals in Debak, Betong region, Sarawak

In general, there are several major ethnic groups in Sarawak: Iban, Chinese , Malay, Bidayuh, Orang Ulu, Melanau and several minor ethnic groups placed collectively under 'Others', such as Indian, Eurasian, Kedayan, Javanese, Bugis, Murut and many more.

Maps[edit]

Below are distribution of ethnic groups in Sarawak by state constituencies, based on 2020 census.[2]

Iban

Malay

Chinese

Bidayuh

Melanau

Dayak people[edit]

The Dayak of Sarawak comprises the Iban and Bidayuh.

Iban[edit]

Main article: Iban people

Sea Dayaks (Iban) women from Rejang, Sarawak, wearing rattan corsets decorated with brass rings and filigree adornments. The family adds to the corset dress as the girl ages and based on her family's wealth.

The Ibans comprise the largest percentage (28.8%) of Sarawak's population. Iban is native to Borneo and their ancestral homeland is located in the Upper Kapuas, West Kalimantan before their migrations to Sarawak from the 1750s.[3] Formerly reputed to be the most formidable headhunters on the island of Borneo, the Ibans of today are a generous, hospitable and placid people.[4]

Because of their history as farmers, pirates and fishermen, Ibans were conventionally referred to as the "Sea Dayaks". The early Iban settlers migrated from Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of Borneo south of Sarawak, via the Kapuas River. They crossed over the Kelingkang range and set up home in the river valleys of Batang Ai, the Skrang River, Saribas, and the Rajang River. The Ibans dwell in longhouses, stilted structures with a large number of rooms housing a whole community of families.[4]

An Iban longhouse may still display head trophies or antu pala. These suspended heads mark tribal victories and were a source of honour. The Dayak Iban ceased practising headhunting in the 1930s.[4]

The Ibans are renowned for their Pua Kumbu (traditional Iban weavings), silver craft, wooden carvings and bead work. Iban tattoos, which were originally symbols of bravery among Iban warriors, have become amongst the most distinctive in the world.[4] The Ibans are also famous for a sweet rice wine called tuak, which is served during big celebrations and festive occasions.[5]

The large majority of Ibans practise Christianity. However, like most other ethnic groups in Sarawak, they still observe many of their traditional rituals and beliefs. Sarawak Iban celebrates colourful festivals such as the generic all-encomposing Gawai Dayak (harvest festival) which is a recent invention and thus held by all Dayak tribes including Iban, Bidayuh and Orang Ulu regardless of their religion. The major festivals of the Iban people are Gawai Bumai (Rice Farming Festival) that includes at least four stages i.e. Gawai Batu (Whetstone Festival), Gawai Benih (Seed Festival), Gawai Ngemali Umai / Jagok (Farm-Healing Festival), Gawai Matah (Harvest-Starting Festival) and Gawai Basimpan (Paddy Safekeeping Festival), Gawai Tuah (Fortune Festival) that comprises Gawai Namaka Tuah (Fortune-Welcoming Festival), Gawai Tajau (Jar Festival) and Gawai Pangkong Tiang (House Post Banging Festival), Gawai Sakit (Healing Festival) including Pelian by a manang shaman, Renong Sakit and Sugi Sakit by a lemambang bard, Gawai Antu (festival of the dead) to honour ancestors and the rarely celebrated but the most elaborate and complex Gawai Burong (Bird Festival) with nine ascending stages in the Saribas/Skrang region or Gawai Amat (Real Festival) in the Baleh region with eight degrees as listed by Masing.

Due to the natural culture of bajalai (sojurn) among Ibans mainly in search of jobs, there is a thriving Iban population of between 300,000 and 350,000 in Johor, found mostly in the area between Pasir Gudang and Masai on the eastern end of the Johor Bahru metropolitan area. Sizeable Iban communities are also present in Kuala Lumpur and Penang, likewise seeking employment. Most will return home during the Gawai Dayak.

Bidayuh[edit]

Main article: Bidayuh

Concentrated mainly on the west end of Borneo, the Bidayuhs make up 8% of the population in Sarawak are now most numerous in the hill counties of Lundu, Bau, Penrissen, Padawan, Siburan and Serian, within an hour's drive from Kuching.

Historically, as other tribes were migrating into Sarawak and forming settlements including a degree of historical Malayisation mainly taken place in the coastal areas, the Bidayuhs retreated further inland, hence earning them the name of "Land Dayaks" or "land owners". The word Bidayuh in itself literally means "land people" in Biatah dialect. In Bau-Jagoi/Singai dialect, the pronunciation is "Bidoyoh" which also carry the same meaning.

The traditional community construction of the Bidayuh is the "baruk", a roundhouse that rises about 1.5 metres off the ground. It serves as the granary and the meeting house for the settlement's community. Longhouses were typical in the olden days, similar to that of the Ibans.

Typical of the Sarawak indigenous groups, the Bidayuhs are well known for their hospitality, and are reputed to be the best makers of tuak, or rice wine. Bidayuhs also use distilling methods to make arak tonok, a kind of moonshine.[6]

The Bidayuhs speak a number of different but related dialects. Some Bidayuhs speak either Iban or Sarawak Malay as their main language. While some of them still practise traditional religions, the majority of modern-day Bidayuhs have adopted the Christian faith with a few villages embracing the Islamic faith as a minority group within the Bidayuh community.

Salako & Lara[edit]

This ethnic group forms a small minority with very little or no comprehensive studies done by any party on their dialect, culture/customs and history. Although classified as Bidayuh by the Malaysian government for political convenience, the Salako and Lara culture have nothing in common with the other Bidayuh groups and their oral tradition claim different descent and migration histories. It is understandable that since this group is living within Bidayuh-majority areas and the fact that they also prefer to stay in one permanent inland area, most probably for agricultural reasons instead of branching out to other locations as opposed to the other races, they are grouped together as Land Dayaks.

This tribal community is believed to have originated from Gajing Mountain, at the source of Salakau River, near Singkawang in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Their language is completely different and not intelligible with the other spoken Bidayuh dialects in the other districts. They are mainly found concentrated in the Lundu area. In August 2001, the Salako and Lara community set up the Salako-Lara Association to safe guard and preserve their culture and custom for the future generations.

Orang Ulu[edit]

Main article: Orang Ulu

A Kayan man, playing the Sapeh

Orang Ulu is an ethnic group in Sarawak. The various Orang Ulu groups together make up to 6.3% of Sarawak's population. The phrase Orang Ulu means upriver people and is a term used to collectively describe the numerous tribes that live upriver in Sarawak's vast interior. Such groups include the major Kayan and Kenyah tribes, and the smaller neighbouring groups of the Kajang, Kejaman, Punan, Ukit, and Penan. Nowadays, the definition also includes the down-river tribes of the Lun Bawang, Lun Dayeh, "mean upriver" or "far upstream", Berawan, Saban as well as the plateau-dwelling Kelabits. Orang Ulu is a term coined officially by the government to identify several ethnics and sub-ethnics who live mostly at the upriver and uphill areas of Sarawak. Most of them live in the district of Baram, Miri, Belaga, Limbang and Lawas.

The Orang Ulu are artistic people with longhouses elaborately decorated with murals and woodcarvings.[7] They are also well known for their intricate beadwork and detailed tattoos. The Orang Ulu tribe can also be identified by their unique musical sound made by a sapeh, a stringed instrument similar to a mandolin.

The vast majority of the Orang Ulu tribe are Christians but traditional religions are still practised in some areas.

Some of the major tribes making up the Orang Ulu group include:

Kayan[edit]

There are approximately 43,000 Kayans in Sarawak. The Kayan tribe built their longhouses in the northern interiors of Sarawak midway on the Baram River, the upper Rejang River and the lower Tubau River, and were traditionally headhunters.

They are well known for their boat making skills. The Kayan people carve from a single block of belian, the strongest of the tropical hardwoods.[8]

Although many Kayan have become Christians, some still practise paganistic beliefs, but this is becoming more rare.[9]

Lun Bawang[edit]

The Lun Bawang are indigenous to the highlands of East Kalimantan, Brunei (Temburong District), southwest of Sabah (Interior Division) and northern region of Sarawak (Limbang Division). Lun Bawang people are traditionally agriculturalists and rear poultry, pigs and buffalo.

Lun Bawangs are also known to be hunters and fishermen. Alternatively, they are also collectively called the Murut of Sarawak and are closely related to the Lun Dayeh of Sabah , Kalimantan and Murut Brunei.[10]

Kelabit[edit]

With a population of approximately 6000, the Kelabit are inhabitants of Bario – a remote plateau in the Sarawak Highlands, slightly over 1,200 meters above sea level. The Kelabits form a tight-knit agrarian community and practicing unique agricultural practices for generations. Famous for their rice-farming, they also cultivate a variety of other crops which are suited to the cooler climate of the Highlands of Bario. The Kelabits are closely related to the Lun Bawang.

The Kelabit are predominantly Christian, the Bario Highlands having been visited by Christian missionaries many years ago. A Christian revival, the Bario revival changed them.[11]

Kenyah[edit]

With the population about 64,000, the Kenyah inhabit the Upper Belaga and upper Baram. There is little historical evidence regarding the exact origin of the Kenyah tribe. Their heartland however, is Long San, along the Baram River and Belaga along Rajang River. Their culture is very similar to that of the Kayan tribe with whom they live in close association.

The typical Kenyah village consists of only one longhouse. Most inhabitants are farmers, planting rice in burnt jungle clearings. With the rapid economic development, especially in timber industry, many of them work in timber camps.[citation needed]

Penan[edit]

The Penan are the only true nomadic people in Sarawak and are amongst the last of the world's hunter-gatherers.[1] The Penan make their home under the rainforest canopy, deep within the vast expanse of Sarawak's jungles. Even today, the Penan continue to roam the rainforest hunting wild boar and deer with blowpipes.[citation needed]

The Penan are skilled weavers and make high-quality rattan baskets and mats. The traditional Penan religion worships a supreme god called Bungan. However, the increasing number who have abandoned the nomadic lifestyle for settlement in longhouses have converted to Christianity.[12]

Punan Bah[edit]

Main article: Punan Bah people

Not to be confused with the Penan, the Punan Bah or Punan is a distinct ethnic group found in Sarawak, Malaysia. They are mostly found around the Bintulu area and also in Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of Borneo. They live on a mixed economy, engaging in swidden style of agriculture, with hill paddy as the main crop & supplemented by a range of other tropical plants. Hunting, fishing, and gathering of forest resources are the other important contributors to their economy. In recent times, many of the educated younger generation gradually migrated to urban areas such as Bintulu, Sibu, Kuching and Kuala Lumpur in search of better living & returning home occasionally, especially during major festivities such as Harvest Festival / or Bungan festival.

At the moment, the term Punan is often indiscriminately & collectively used to refer to the then unknown or yet to be classified tribes as such as Punan Busang, Penihing, Sajau Hovongan, Uheng Kareho, Merah, Aput, Tubu, Bukat, Ukit, Habongkot and Penyawung. There has been no effort to comprehensively study or research on this ensemble of tribes; these communities lack the privilege and are deprived of their rights to be recognised as individual & unique races (with their own tradition, language & cultural heritage) within the nation's list of ethnic classification, resulting to more than 20 different tribes / ethnics (unrelated to one another) found on the island of Borneo being lumped together into one ethnic group, which includes;

Punan Busang

Punan Penihing

Punan Batu

Punan Sajau

Punan Hovongan of Kapuas Hulu, West Kalimantan

Punan Uheng Kereho of Kapuas Hulu, West Kalimantan

Punan Murung of Murung Raya, Central Kalimantan

Punan Aoheng (Suku Dayak Pnihing) of East Kalimantan

Punan Merah (Siau)

Punan Aput

Punan Merap

Punan Tubu

Punan Ukit/Bukitan

Dayak Bukat

Punan Habongkot

Punan Panyawung

Sebop[edit]

The Sebop is one of the least known groups in Sarawak and they can be found in upper Tinjar river in the Miri Division of Sarawak. Within the Sebup group are the sub-groups that include Long Pekun, Maleng, Lirong, Long Kapah, Long Lubang, Teballau and Long Suku. Cultural researchers acknowledged that there is a Sebop stream in the Usun Apau from which the Sebop got their ethnic name. The Sebup ancestors were said to have lived in the adjacent valleys on the southern side of Usun Apau namely; Seping, Menapun, Menawan and Luar rivers before they moved north towards the Tinjar. Today the Sebup are found in Long Luyang, Long Batan, Long Selapun, Long Pala, Long Nuwah and Long Subeng. Amongst the longhouses, Long Luyang is the longest and most populated Sebop settlement. It comprises more than 100 units.

The Sebop are Christians and their cultural festival is Pesta Coen, a celebration that was used to mark the successful returned of their warriors (Lakin Ayau) from the battlefield. Today it is celebrated as a social cultural festival for everyone to return to the longhouse. Among the highlights of the celebration are the raising up of the gigantic ceremonial pole (Kelebong) as well as the traditional dances and songs.

Tagal[edit]

Main article: Murut people

Also known as "Murut Sabah", "Tagal" or "hill people", this indigenous subgroup of the Murut people can be found inhabiting the lowland areas around Lawas & Limbang. They are part of an interstate ethnic group that is found highly concentrated along the borderlands and inland areas of Sabah, Brunei, Kalimantan and Sarawak, with the majority in the former.

The Tagal are mostly shifting cultivators, with some hunting and riverine fishing on the side. They use the Tagol Murut language as the lingua franca of the whole group. It belongs to the North Bornean subdivision of the Austronesian language family. A majority of the Tagal people are Christians, with a few Muslims.

Bisaya[edit]

Main article: Bisaya (Borneo)

The Bisaya are an indigenous people, concentrated around the Limbang river in northern Sarawak state. Most Sarawakian Bisaya are Christians. The Bisaya are also found in Sabah (around Kuala Penyu and Beaufort). In Sabah, the majority of them are Muslims; the minority practice Christianity. Some of them still practice Paganism. They are believed to be distantly related to the Visayan of the Philippines. Legend belief is such that in the distant past, there were large migration of Bisaya to The Philippines. However the Bisaya dialect is more related to Malay language than the Philippines Visaya language. Such similarities may be due to the standardising effect and influence of the Malay Language has over the Borneon Bisaya as well as all other ethnic languages spoken in Malaysia.

Bisaya’s indigenous people have settled in Borneo for a long time. They are skilled in agriculture such as paddy planting and cultivation of gingers. They also hunt wild animals and rear domestic animals such as chicken, goat and buffaloes. Bisaya people are also skilled in catching fish, both in the rivers and sea.

Melanau[edit]

A replica of a traditional Melanau House

Main article: Melanau

The Melanaus have been thought to be amongst the original settlers of Sarawak.[13] They make up 4.9% of the population in Sarawak.

Originally from Mukah (the 10th Administrative Division as launched in March 2002), the Melanaus traditionally lived in tall houses. Nowadays, they have adopted a Malay lifestyle, living in kampong-type settlements. Traditionally, Melanaus were fishermen and still today, they are reputed as some of the finest boat-builders and craftsmen.[14]

While the Melanaus are ethnically different from the Malays, their lifestyles and practices are quite similar. This is especially the case in the larger towns and cities where most Melanau have adopted the Islamic faith.[15]

The Melanaus were believed to originally summon spirits in a practice verging on paganism. Today most of the Melanaus are Muslims whilst some were converted to Christianity (especially around Mukah & Dalat areas). However some still celebrate traditional animist festivals such as the annual Kaul festival in Mukah District.

Malay[edit]

Sarawakian Malay[edit]

Traditional Sarawakian Malay home

The Malays make up 22.9% of the population in Sarawak. Sarawak was a home for several former native Malay kingdoms, including the Sarawak Sultanate (1598–1641), Banting (16th century), Saribas (15th century), Samarahan (13th century) and Santubong (7th century).

Similar to the ethnogenesis development in many parts of Borneo, a large number of the Malays in Sarawak are indigenous to the land and were historically descendant from various native Bornean tribes that have adopted the Malay culture, language and the Islamic faith for centuries, drawn in a process known as Malayisation (Masuk Melayu).[16][17] At the same time, there are also other Sarawakian Malays that can traced their lineage from a diverse origin and ancestries, including Brunei, Sumatera, Natuna, Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan and other regions.

Traditionally fishermen, these seafaring people chose to form settlements on the banks of the many rivers of Sarawak, while others (the native tribes) were absorbed into the Malay identity since most of the historical contacts, religious conversion and assimilation were predominantly taken place in the rivers and coastal areas. Today, many Malays have migrated to the cities where they are heavily involved in the public and private sectors and taken up various professions.

Malay villages, known as Kampungs, are a cluster of wooden houses on stilts, many of which are still located by rivers on the outskirts of major towns and cities, play home to traditional cottage industries. The Malays are famed for their wood carvings, silver and brass craftings as well as traditional Malay textile weaving with silver and gold thread (kain songket). Malay in Sarawak have a distinct dialect which is called Sarawak Malay. It has many elements of the Sambas language spoken before contact with the Bruneian sultanate. The culture of Sarawakian Malay is also somewhat unusual such as bermukun, Sarawak zapin, and keringkam weaving. It is possible, though insufficient studies exist, that these are remnants of the Sambas sultanate’s culture, prior to a change in identity and the speaking of a unique hybrid of Malay-Sambas by the previously Sambas speaking natives.

In Federal Constitution, Malays are Muslim by religion, having been converted to the faith some 600 years ago with the Islamification of the native region. Their religion is reflected in their culture and art and Islamic symbolism is evident in local architecture – from homes to government buildings. In Malaysia, people of Indonesian descent: Javanese, Bugis, and Banjar are constitutionally classified as Malays, and have the same rights should they become a citizen.

Kedayan[edit]

Main article: Kedayan

The Kedayan are an ethnic group residing in parts of Sarawak. They are also known as Kadayan, Kadaian or simply badly spelled as Kadyan by the British. The Kedayan language is spoken by more than 35,000 people in Sarawak, with most of the members of the Kedayan community residing in Lawas, Limbang, Miri and Sibuti areas. A sizable community also exists in Brunei Darussalam and Sabah.

The Kedayans is believed to have Javanese origins. The British Resident Malcolm McArthur attests to their Javanese origins in his Report on Brunei 1904.[18] Meanwhile, historians such as Pehin Jamil claimed the Kedayans were bought over from Java to Borneo by Sultan Bolkiah the 5th during his famous conquests of Borneo.[19] This was due to the Kedayan's prowess in padi farming and other agricultural abilities. Other researchers consider them indigenous to Borneo, having accepted Islam and influenced by Malay culture, primarily by Bruneians.

Kedayan are mainly padi farmers or fishermen. They have a reputation for knowledge of medicinal plants, which they grow to treat a wide range of ailments or to make tonics. The Kedayan tend to settle inland in a cluster pattern, with houses built in the centre and with fields radiating outwards. The Kedayans traditionally tended to be a rather closed community, discouraging contact with outsiders. Intermarriage among relatives was encouraged for economic and social reasons.

Javanese[edit]

Main article: Javanese people

The present generation are descended from the original ethnic Javanese people, the majority from the province of Central Java, who arrived in Sarawak as "kuli kontrak", indentured servants who were brought in by the Dutch via Batavia (modern-day Jakarta) during the late 1800s to the 1940s & transferred to a British company to work in the rubber plantations. After the end of their contracts, some of them had decided to settle down & work on land no longer producing rubber. Over the years, these labourers were prosperous & were later given the right of ownership to several hectares of land.

An estimated 5,000 Javanese people are found all over the state, establishing their own villages, with the majority concentrated in Kuching & its surrounding areas. Some of the younger generation still carry traditional Javanese names & are identified as ethnic Javanese in their birth certificates. They are proud of their heritage; the current population still speak the language of their parents & retaining their age-old traditions & practices of their forefathers.

The friendly Javanese are traditionally Muslims, so they have a strong affinity with the Malays, with many of them intermarrying & living within Malay-majority areas & also other communities. They use Sarawak Malay or English as a common lingua franca to communicate with the other ethnic groups.

Bugis[edit]

Main article: Bugis

The Bugis are an ethnic group which had originated from the southwestern province of Sulawesi, Indonesia. They are renowned around the archipelago as adventurous seafarers and merchants, establishing trading routes with other ports along Sarawak's coastal areas over the past few centuries, eventually settling down with their families or taking up local spouses. The Bugis artisans are noted for their expertise in building tongkangs & proas, plying their skills at the fishing villages and local dockyards. They are also skilled farmers, construction workers, traders and fishermen.

The Bugis population in Sarawak is scattered throughout the state. Many can be found living along the coast alongside or within other communities and also opening up small agricultural settlements further inland, especially in the Sarikei district. They are predominantly Muslims and many have amalgamated with the local Muslim society through marriage.

Indian/South Asian[edit]

Main article: Malaysian Indian Main article: South Asian

The Indians and generally South Asians in Sarawak are a small geographical and ethno-cultural community, estimated to be between 6,500 people (figure also includes those of mixed parentage and professionals, students and residents from other parts of Malaysia), found mainly in the urban exteriors of Kuching and Miri division. The majority of Indians in Sarawak are Tamils. There are also other Indians minorities from the Punjabi Sikhs, Telugus, Sindhis and Keralites ethnic groups.

The Sikhs were among the earliest South Asians to set foot on Sarawak's soil, recruited by the first White Rajah, Sir James Brooke in Singapore as police officers to bring peace, law and order during the 1857 Chinese uprising in Bau. At a much later stage, the Sikhs were employed as security personnel for the Sarawak Shell Company in Miri and also as government-appointed prison wardens. It is also believed that there were a few Sikhs in the Sarawak Rangers, which was formed in 1872.

As for the Tamils and other minority Indian ethnic groups, their history in the state began during the 1860s, when they were brought in from South India by the second White Rajah Charles Brooke to work in the tea and coffee plantations at Matang Hills. They were also traders and travelers visiting the state for religious, educational or business opportunities. After many years, the South Asian community had extended to include newer immigrants from Sri Lanka, Pakistan and other areas in India. The Indian Muslims were prominent in the restaurant business, textile trade & Indian food production. They were also instrumentally significant in their contribution to the Islamic fellowship and religious welfare in the state with their Muslim Malay brethren.

Many of the present-day Sarawak South Asians are from mixed marriages with the Malays, Chinese & other Sarawak native ethnic groups, with many of the younger generation using English, Sarawak Malay or one of the native or Chinese dialects to communicate with everybody else. They have assimilated well within the state's general population as a culturally distinct group in Sarawak that is rather unique as opposed to the Indian diaspora of Peninsular Malaysia and the Asian region in general. A number of Sarawak Indians can be found working as doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers and other professional careers in the government and private sectors.

Eurasian[edit]

Mixed marriages/unions between Europeans and local spouses have been going on for centuries, since the time European traders, sailors and colonists first set foot on Sarawak's soils.

The Eurasians in Sarawak continues to be the smallest of minorities, with many of them rather identifying themselves with the major racial denomination of their local parent rather than that of their European, Australian or American parent, as the local state government does not formally classify them as an official ethnicity. At the moment, the exact number of people in the local Eurasian community is not known, as many of them registered themselves (for administrative and social ease) as Iban, Bidayuh, Chinese, Malay, Melanau, Orang Ulu, Indian or simply under "others". Besides assimilating themselves into the general populace, many of them had also migrated to Peninsular Malaysia or their foreign parents' countries of origin.

The local Eurasians established the Sarawak Eurasian Association (SEA) in the year 2000 to foster closer ties among members of this community and also to raise awareness on the existence of this distinct group. Their association is quite unique, if compared to the Eurasian associations of Peninsular Malaysia, as it is composed by members of different religious faiths.

Sinitic people[edit]

A Paifang in Malaysia-China Friendship Park, Kuching

Main article: Malaysian Chinese

Chinese records has shown that China had a trading contact with Borneo as early as 600 A.D. when a country known as "Po Ni" (present day Brunei) sent tribute to Tang Emperor. When British explorer James Brooke arrived in Borneo in 1839, there were several hundred Chinese working in pepper plantations there. The first Hakka migrants worked as labourers in the gold mines at Bau. This was followed by the migration of Fuzhou people to the Rajang basin in 1900s, working as farmers in cash crop industries such as pepper, rubber, sago, and oil palm. Meanwhile, Hokkien people from the Xiamen area, worked as merchants. Lastly, the Cantonese people, who made up majority of the sinitic people population in the Peninsular Malaysia, not been really attracted to Sarawak.[20]

As of 1989, 30% of Sarawak Chinese population was made up of ethnic Hakka, followed by Fuzhounese (30%), Hokkien (12%), and Cantonese (8%). The Sinitic people made up 73% of the population in Kuching and 77% in Sibu.[20]

Through their clan associations, business acumen and work ethic, the Sinitic people organised themselves economically and rapidly dominated commerce. Today, the Sinitic people are amongst Sarawak's most prosperous ethnic groups.

Today, they make up 17.1% of the population of Sarawak (as reported by Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM) in 2021), and consist of communities built from the economic migrants of the 19th and early 20th centuries.

The Sarawak Sinitic people belong to a wide range of ethnic groups, the most significant being:

Hakka

Hokkien

Chaoshanese

Teochew

Shanghainese

Hainanese

Kwongsai

Cantonese

Minnanese

Fujianese

Fuzhounese

Puxian Min

Whereas Hakka is spoken predominantly by the farmers in the interior, Hokkien and Teochew are the dominant languages spoken within the major trading towns and among early traders and businessmen. Hainanese (a.k.a. Hailam) were well known as coffee-shop operators, the Henghua are famous as fishermen. The notable difference between the Sarawakian Sinitic people and those presiding in West Malaysia is the latter’s common use of Cantonese. Malaysian Mandarin however, has become the unifying language spoken by all the distinct ethnic groups with sinitic origins in both East and West Malaysia, replicating China. The Hakka people in Kuching, Sarawak came from Jieyang, Guangdong. The Hokkien came from Zhao'an, Fujian. The Teochew came from Shantou and Chaozhou in Guangdong, the Shanghainese came from Shanghai, Hainanese from Hainan, Cantonese from Guangdong, Fuzhounese from Fuzhou, Fujian. The Kwongsai people came from Guangxi, Chaoshanese people came from Chaoshan, Minnanese people came from Xiamen, Lastly the Henghuas or Hinghwa or Puxian people from Putian, Fujian.

The Sinitic people maintain their ethnic heritage and culture and celebrate all the major cultural festivals, most notably Lunar New Year, the Hungry Ghost Festival and Christmas. The Sarawak Sinitic people are predominantly Buddhists and Christians.

Religions of Sarawak[edit]

Religion in Sarawak (2022)[21]

Religion

Percent

Christianity

 

50.1%

Islam

 

34.2%

Buddhism

 

12.8%

No religion

 

2.2%

Others

 

0.5%

Christianity is the largest religion in Sarawak, representing 50.1% of the total population according to the 2020 census.[21] Sarawakians practice a variety of religions, including Christianity, Chinese folk religion (a fusion of Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism and ancestor worship), Islam, Baha’i Faith and animism.[22] Unsurprisingly, the issue of Islam as state religion divides the Muslim and non-Muslims with a contrasting 85% supporting and opposing, respectively. Nevertheless, 93% of Sarawakians consider their regional Sarawak identity to be their first choice in defining themselves which is in stark contrast to Peninsular Malaysia where 55% see religion as their most important identity marker. This is in line with the Malaccan Sultanate from which the Malay language and culture stems.[23] Adopting a common name, language and religion has united the various West Malaysian indigenous communities and many Sambas indigenous people of Kuching. Sarawakians across all religions express majority support for increased autonomy for the state - at 76% overall.[24]

Christianity[edit]

Main article: Christianity in Malaysia

St. Joseph's Cathedral, Kuching, a Roman Catholic cathedral in Kuching, Sarawak.

Christianity makes up the largest religion in Sarawak. Sarawak is the state with the highest percentage of Christians in Malaysia and the only state with a Christian majority. According to the 2020 census, Christians make up 50.1% of the population of Sarawak.[21]

Protestants, mostly Anglicans, make up the majority, followed by more than 441,300 Catholics. [25] Other Christian denominations in Sarawak include Methodists, Borneo Evangelical Church (or Sidang Injil Borneo, S.I.B.) and Baptists. Many Sarawakian Christians are mostly non-Malay Bumiputera, ranging from Iban, Bidayuh, Orang Ulu, Murut and Melanau.

Denomination of Christians in Sarawak may vary according to their race, although this is not necessarily true. For example, most Chinese Christians are Methodists, most Ibans and Bidayuhs are either Roman Catholics or Anglicans, whilst most Orang Ulu are S.I.B.s. Church plays an important part in shaping morality of the communities, while many Christians view the church as a religious place. Professing Christianity has led to the abolition of some previous rituals by indigenous ethnics such as headhunting and improper disposal of dead bodies. Since the majority of people indigenous to Sarawak are Christians, these people have adopted Christian names in English or Italian, such as Valentino, Joseph, and Constantine. Almost 93% of the Iban, Kelabit, and Bidayuh have changed their traditional names to English names since they converted to Christianity. Many young indigenous Iban, Kelabit, and Bidayuh people in Sarawak will not practice the ceremonies of their ancestors such as Miring, the worship of Singalang Burung (local deity), and celebration of Gawai Antu. The Bidayuhs are mainly Pagans or animists before they convert to Christianity and they believe in ancestral worship and in the ancient spirits of nature. Due to this, they have big celebrations like the Gawai (1 June), which is a celebration to please the padi spirit for a good harvest and nowadays, since 60% of the population has converted to Christianity, the young Bidayuh generation will celebrate only Christmas as their first priority. Christians among indigenous ethnics have also embraced many Christian values such as preserving modesty and dedication to God.[14]

Christianity has also contributed to the betterment of the education system in Sarawak. There were a lot of missionary schools built during the 1950s to early 1980s.[26] Christianity has gained popularity throughout Sarawak, transcending race and religion. Due to federalisation of the education system, most of these missionary schools have been converted into government national schools. Participation of the church in these schools has been reduced. The Malaysian government has allowed the schools to continue using religious symbols on school buildings and teaching Christian values to non-Muslim students.[27]

Christians in Sarawak observe many Christian festivals just like their counterparts in other part of the world, namely Christmas Day, Good Friday, Easter Monday, All Soul's Day, and Ascension Day. However, only Christmas and Good Friday are public holidays in Sarawak.[28]

Islam[edit]

Main article: Islam in Malaysia

Kuching Mosque

Islam is the second-largest religion in Sarawak, after Christianity. According to the 2020 census, 34.2% of Sarawak's population were Muslim.[21] All Malay-speaking Muslims are designated Malays by the Malaysian Constitution.[29] Malay Muslim culture contributes significantly to Sarawakian Muslim tradition as a whole especially for weddings, circumcision (coming of age ritual), 'majlis doa selamat', etc. Sarawak Malays were originally a mixture of Malay migrants from the rest of Southeast Asian archipelago that migrated to the area hundreds of years ago. They intermarried with local ethnic groups such as Pegu, Bliun and Seru, these ethnic groups were later absorbed into ethnic Sarawak Malay identity.[30]

Other ethnic groups such as Melanaus and Miriek have retained their languages in whole and have strong Islamic influence in their traditions from their ancestors. Sarawak was once home to various Islamic-Malay kingdoms such as Saribas, Melano, Santubong and Kalaka, etc.[31] They have also absorbed traditions from the Malaccan sultanate.[32] Melanaus, depending on which region or kampung they live in, are normally either Muslim or Christian (while a small number are pagans). Most of them live in Kuching, Matu, Mukah, Igan and Bintulu. About 65% of Melanau people are of the Sunni Muslim belief while the remaining 35% are either Christians or animists.[33]

Kedayan is another distinct ethnic group from Malay and Melanau, but have been Muslim since the time of the Brunei Sultanate, another ally of the Malaccan Sultanate [34] Although small in number, with the majority of their closest kin living in Brunei, they contribute to a majority of the Muslim population in Sibuti and Bekenu district. Despite being designated as a distinct ethnic group, they speak a dialect of Brunei Malay.

Administratively, Islam is under the authority of the state of Islamic Council, which is Majlis Islam Sarawak (MIS), a state government agency. Under MIS, there are various agencies dealing with various aspects of Islam such as Jabatan Agama Islam Sarawak (JAIS), Majlis Fatwa and Baitulmal Sarawak.[35]

Muslims in Sarawak observe all Islamic festivals, such as Hari Raya Aidilfitri (Puasa), Hari Raya Aidiladha (Haji), Awal Muharram and Maulidur Rasul. All these celebrations have been commenced as public holidays in Sarawak. However, Israk Mikraj, Awal Ramadhan and Nuzul Quran, although observed, are not public holidays.[36]

Buddhism/Taoism[edit]

Tua Pek Kong Temple, Sibu

Main article: Buddhism in Malaysia

Buddhism is the traditional religion of the overseas Chinese community in Sarawak, brought by their ancestors before the Cultural Revolution in China. According to the 2020 census, 12.8% of Sarawakians were Buddhist.[21] Many of the Sarawakian Chinese community, which comprises the bulk of the Buddhist population, actually practise a mixture of Buddhism, Taoism and Chinese folk religion. As there is no official name for this particular set of beliefs, many followers instead list down their religion as Buddhism, mainly for bureaucratic convenience. Buddhists from other ethnic especially Bumiputera are rare and almost insignificant to be related with, perhaps in small community with humble and low profile practice of the Buddhist ceremony among some Bumiputra

people in Sarawak.

Buddhists in Sarawak observe Wesak Day. It is a public holiday in Sarawak.

Hinduism[edit]

Main article: Hinduism in Malaysia

Unlike their fellow Peninsular Malaysians, Sarawak Hindus are very small in number. Almost all Hindus in Sarawak are Indians, while some are Chinese and other indigenous people through inter-marriages. There are less than 10 Hindu temples throughout Sarawak, most of them are located in Kuching and Miri. Currently there are 5,000 Hindus (representing 0.2% of the population) in Sarawak.

Hindus in Sarawak observe Deepavali and Thaipusam. However, none of these festivals are public holidays in Sarawak.

Sikhism[edit]

Main article: Sikhism in Malaysia

Gurdwara Sahib in Kuching

The first Gurdwara was built in 1911 in Kuching, built by the Sikh community of pioneers in the state, mainly police and security personnel. At the present, there are four known Gurdwaras in the state, with one each located in Kuching, Miri, Sibu and Bau, with the latter no longer in existence since the late 1950s, due to the fact that there were no longer any Sikhs in that area.

Besides being used as places of worship, the Gurdwaras also hold weekly Gurmukhi classes and also serve as community centres for the thriving Sikh community.

Baháʼí Faith[edit]

Main article: Baháʼí Faith

Baháʼí is one of the recognised religions in Sarawak. Various races embraced the Baháʼí Faith, from Chinese to Iban, Bidayuh, Bisayahs, Penans and Indians. In towns, the majority Baháʼí community is often Chinese, but in rural communities, they are of all races, Ibans, Bidayuhs, etc. In some schools, Baháʼí associations or clubs for students exist.

Baháʼí communities are now found in all the various divisions of Sarawak. However, these communities do not accept assistance from government or other organisations for activities which are strictly for Baháʼís. If, however, these services extend to include non-Baháʼís also, e.g. education for children's classes adult literacy, then sometimes the community does accept assistance.

The administration of the Baháʼí Faith is through Local Spiritual Assemblies. There is no priesthood among the Baháʼís. Election is held annually without nomination or electioneering. The Baháʼís should study the community and seek those members who display mature experience, loyalty, are knowledgeable in the Faith.

There are more than 45,000 Baháʼís in more than 230 localities in Sarawak.

Animism[edit]

Main article: Animism

Many Dayak especially Iban continue to practice traditional ceremonies, particularly with dual marriage rites and during the important harvest and ancestral festivals such as Gawai Dayak, Gawai Kenyalang and Gawai Antu.

Other ethnicities who have a rapidly dwindling and trace amount of animism practitioners are Melanau and Bidayuh.

See also[edit]

Demographics of Sabah

Demographics of Malaysia

References[edit]

^ "Taburan Penduduk dan Ciri-ciri asas demografi (Population Distribution and Basic demographic characteristics 2010)" (PDF). Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 May 2014. Retrieved 11 December 2015. p. 13 [26/156]

^ "TABURAN PENDUDUK MENGIKUT PBT & MUKIM 2010". Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Retrieved 15 December 2017.

^ "Iban as a koine language in Sarawak". 1 May 2023.

^ a b c d Journey Malaysia. Journey Malaysia. Retrieved on 29 August 2021.

^ Tourism Malaysia USA Archived 20 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Tourism Malaysia USA. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ LongHuse Archived 5 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Longhouse.org.my (15 October 2009). Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Vtaide. Vtaide. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Heesyam, Faizal. (27 July 2010) Discover Borneo. Discover Borneo. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ XFab Archived 15 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. XFab. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Sri Lankan News Web Archived 24 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Srilankanewsweb.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Bulan, Solomon and Bulan-Dorai, L (2014), The Bario Revival, HomeMatters Network

^ Discover Borneo. Discover Borneo. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Gomiri Archived 20 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Gomiri. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ a b Museum of Learning. Museumstuff.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Melanau | The Grown Ups. Swingrownups.wordpress.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ "Some Aspects of Iban-Maloh Contact in West Kalimantan" (PDF). 7 May 2023.

^ "Asal usul Melayu Sarawak: Menjejaki titik tak pasti". 1 May 2023.

^ McArthur, M. S. H. (1987). Report on Brunei in 1904. Ohio University Center for International Studies.

^ Al-Sufri, M. J., & Hassan, M. A. (2000). Tarsilah Brunei: the early history of Brunei up to 1432 AD (Vol. 1). Brunei History Centre, Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports.

^ a b Zepp, Raymond (March 1989). "The Chinese in Sarawak". Bulletin de Sinologie. Nouvelle Série. French Centre for Research on Contemporary China (53): 19–21. JSTOR 43436606.

^ a b c d e "Census Dashboard". Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Retrieved 1 March 2023.

^ Tititudorancea. Tititudorancea. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Sneddon, James N. (2003), The Indonesian language: its history and role in modern society, University of New South Wales Press, ISBN 0-86840-598-1, pp. 74–77

^ Hock Guan, Lee (April 2018). "The ISEAS Borneo Survey: Autonomy, Identity, Islam and Language/Education in Sarawak" (PDF). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. 19: 3–8.

^ Ruling coalition holds Malaysia's Christian-majority state, Union of Catholic Asian News, Dec 2021

^ Travel Malaysia. Go2travelmalaysia.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Network Base. Networkbase.info. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ One Stop Malaysia Archived 21 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine. One Stop Malaysia. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Tititudorrancea. Tititudorancea.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ "Mencari kaum yang hilang di Sarawak". 29 July 2016.

^ Al-Sufri, M. J. (1990). Tarsilah Brunei: sejarah awal dan perkembangan Islam (Vol. 1). Jabatan Pusat Sejarah, Kementerian Kebudayaan Belia dan Sukan.

^ Andaya, Barbara Watson; Andaya, Leonard Y. (2015). A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400-1830. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88992-6.

^ Borneo Tropicana. Borneo Tropicana. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann K. S.; Lewis, Bernard (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 2A, The Indian Sub-Continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim West. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29137-8.

^ Travel Malaysia. Go2travelmalaysia.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Go Malaysia. Go Malaysia. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

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1Ethnic groups of Sarawak

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1.1Maps

2Dayak people

Toggle Dayak people subsection

2.1Iban

2.2Bidayuh

2.2.1Salako & Lara

3Orang Ulu

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3.1Kayan

3.2Lun Bawang

3.3Kelabit

3.4Kenyah

3.5Penan

3.6Punan Bah

3.7Sebop

3.8Tagal

4Bisaya

5Melanau

6Malay

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6.1Sarawakian Malay

6.2Kedayan

6.3Javanese

6.4Bugis

7Indian/South Asian

8Eurasian

9Sinitic people

10Religions of Sarawak

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10.1Christianity

10.2Islam

10.3Buddhism/Taoism

10.4Hinduism

10.5Sikhism

10.6Baháʼí Faith

10.7Animism

11See also

12References

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Historical populationYearPop.±% 1970 976,269—     1980 1,235,553+26.6% 1991 1,642,771+33.0% 2000 2,009,893+22.3% 2010 2,399,839+19.4% 2021 2,470,000+2.9%Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org.Source: Department of Statistics, Malaysia (2021)

Sarawak's population is very diverse, comprising many races and ethnic groups. Sarawak has more than 40 sub-ethnic groups, each with its own distinct language, culture and lifestyle. This makes Sarawak demography very distinct and unique compared to its Peninsular counterpart. However, it largely mirrors to other territories in Borneo - Sabah, Brunei and Kalimantan.

Ethnic groups of Sarawak[edit]

Ethnic groups in Sarawak[1]

  Iban (28.8%)  Malay (22.9%)  Chinese (23.3%)  Bidayuh (8%)  Other Bumiputeras (mainly Orang Ulu) (6.3%)  Melanau (4.9%)  Non-Malaysians (4.7%)  Others (0.6%)

A Modern Iban Longhouse, built using new materials and preserving essential features of communal living

Iban girls dressed in full Iban (women) attire during Gawai festivals in Debak, Betong region, Sarawak

In general, there are several major ethnic groups in Sarawak: Iban, Chinese , Malay, Bidayuh, Orang Ulu, Melanau and several minor ethnic groups placed collectively under 'Others', such as Indian, Eurasian, Kedayan, Javanese, Bugis, Murut and many more.

Maps[edit]

Below are distribution of ethnic groups in Sarawak by state constituencies, based on 2020 census.[2]

Iban

Malay

Chinese

Bidayuh

Melanau

Dayak people[edit]

The Dayak of Sarawak comprises the Iban and Bidayuh.

Iban[edit]

Main article: Iban people

Sea Dayaks (Iban) women from Rejang, Sarawak, wearing rattan corsets decorated with brass rings and filigree adornments. The family adds to the corset dress as the girl ages and based on her family's wealth.

The Ibans comprise the largest percentage (28.8%) of Sarawak's population. Iban is native to Borneo and their ancestral homeland is located in the Upper Kapuas, West Kalimantan before their migrations to Sarawak from the 1750s.[3] Formerly reputed to be the most formidable headhunters on the island of Borneo, the Ibans of today are a generous, hospitable and placid people.[4]

Because of their history as farmers, pirates and fishermen, Ibans were conventionally referred to as the "Sea Dayaks". The early Iban settlers migrated from Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of Borneo south of Sarawak, via the Kapuas River. They crossed over the Kelingkang range and set up home in the river valleys of Batang Ai, the Skrang River, Saribas, and the Rajang River. The Ibans dwell in longhouses, stilted structures with a large number of rooms housing a whole community of families.[4]

An Iban longhouse may still display head trophies or antu pala. These suspended heads mark tribal victories and were a source of honour. The Dayak Iban ceased practising headhunting in the 1930s.[4]

The Ibans are renowned for their Pua Kumbu (traditional Iban weavings), silver craft, wooden carvings and bead work. Iban tattoos, which were originally symbols of bravery among Iban warriors, have become amongst the most distinctive in the world.[4] The Ibans are also famous for a sweet rice wine called tuak, which is served during big celebrations and festive occasions.[5]

The large majority of Ibans practise Christianity. However, like most other ethnic groups in Sarawak, they still observe many of their traditional rituals and beliefs. Sarawak Iban celebrates colourful festivals such as the generic all-encomposing Gawai Dayak (harvest festival) which is a recent invention and thus held by all Dayak tribes including Iban, Bidayuh and Orang Ulu regardless of their religion. The major festivals of the Iban people are Gawai Bumai (Rice Farming Festival) that includes at least four stages i.e. Gawai Batu (Whetstone Festival), Gawai Benih (Seed Festival), Gawai Ngemali Umai / Jagok (Farm-Healing Festival), Gawai Matah (Harvest-Starting Festival) and Gawai Basimpan (Paddy Safekeeping Festival), Gawai Tuah (Fortune Festival) that comprises Gawai Namaka Tuah (Fortune-Welcoming Festival), Gawai Tajau (Jar Festival) and Gawai Pangkong Tiang (House Post Banging Festival), Gawai Sakit (Healing Festival) including Pelian by a manang shaman, Renong Sakit and Sugi Sakit by a lemambang bard, Gawai Antu (festival of the dead) to honour ancestors and the rarely celebrated but the most elaborate and complex Gawai Burong (Bird Festival) with nine ascending stages in the Saribas/Skrang region or Gawai Amat (Real Festival) in the Baleh region with eight degrees as listed by Masing.

Due to the natural culture of bajalai (sojurn) among Ibans mainly in search of jobs, there is a thriving Iban population of between 300,000 and 350,000 in Johor, found mostly in the area between Pasir Gudang and Masai on the eastern end of the Johor Bahru metropolitan area. Sizeable Iban communities are also present in Kuala Lumpur and Penang, likewise seeking employment. Most will return home during the Gawai Dayak.

Bidayuh[edit]

Main article: Bidayuh

Concentrated mainly on the west end of Borneo, the Bidayuhs make up 8% of the population in Sarawak are now most numerous in the hill counties of Lundu, Bau, Penrissen, Padawan, Siburan and Serian, within an hour's drive from Kuching.

Historically, as other tribes were migrating into Sarawak and forming settlements including a degree of historical Malayisation mainly taken place in the coastal areas, the Bidayuhs retreated further inland, hence earning them the name of "Land Dayaks" or "land owners". The word Bidayuh in itself literally means "land people" in Biatah dialect. In Bau-Jagoi/Singai dialect, the pronunciation is "Bidoyoh" which also carry the same meaning.

The traditional community construction of the Bidayuh is the "baruk", a roundhouse that rises about 1.5 metres off the ground. It serves as the granary and the meeting house for the settlement's community. Longhouses were typical in the olden days, similar to that of the Ibans.

Typical of the Sarawak indigenous groups, the Bidayuhs are well known for their hospitality, and are reputed to be the best makers of tuak, or rice wine. Bidayuhs also use distilling methods to make arak tonok, a kind of moonshine.[6]

The Bidayuhs speak a number of different but related dialects. Some Bidayuhs speak either Iban or Sarawak Malay as their main language. While some of them still practise traditional religions, the majority of modern-day Bidayuhs have adopted the Christian faith with a few villages embracing the Islamic faith as a minority group within the Bidayuh community.

Salako & Lara[edit]

This ethnic group forms a small minority with very little or no comprehensive studies done by any party on their dialect, culture/customs and history. Although classified as Bidayuh by the Malaysian government for political convenience, the Salako and Lara culture have nothing in common with the other Bidayuh groups and their oral tradition claim different descent and migration histories. It is understandable that since this group is living within Bidayuh-majority areas and the fact that they also prefer to stay in one permanent inland area, most probably for agricultural reasons instead of branching out to other locations as opposed to the other races, they are grouped together as Land Dayaks.

This tribal community is believed to have originated from Gajing Mountain, at the source of Salakau River, near Singkawang in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Their language is completely different and not intelligible with the other spoken Bidayuh dialects in the other districts. They are mainly found concentrated in the Lundu area. In August 2001, the Salako and Lara community set up the Salako-Lara Association to safe guard and preserve their culture and custom for the future generations.

Orang Ulu[edit]

Main article: Orang Ulu

A Kayan man, playing the Sapeh

Orang Ulu is an ethnic group in Sarawak. The various Orang Ulu groups together make up to 6.3% of Sarawak's population. The phrase Orang Ulu means upriver people and is a term used to collectively describe the numerous tribes that live upriver in Sarawak's vast interior. Such groups include the major Kayan and Kenyah tribes, and the smaller neighbouring groups of the Kajang, Kejaman, Punan, Ukit, and Penan. Nowadays, the definition also includes the down-river tribes of the Lun Bawang, Lun Dayeh, "mean upriver" or "far upstream", Berawan, Saban as well as the plateau-dwelling Kelabits. Orang Ulu is a term coined officially by the government to identify several ethnics and sub-ethnics who live mostly at the upriver and uphill areas of Sarawak. Most of them live in the district of Baram, Miri, Belaga, Limbang and Lawas.

The Orang Ulu are artistic people with longhouses elaborately decorated with murals and woodcarvings.[7] They are also well known for their intricate beadwork and detailed tattoos. The Orang Ulu tribe can also be identified by their unique musical sound made by a sapeh, a stringed instrument similar to a mandolin.

The vast majority of the Orang Ulu tribe are Christians but traditional religions are still practised in some areas.

Some of the major tribes making up the Orang Ulu group include:

Kayan[edit]

There are approximately 43,000 Kayans in Sarawak. The Kayan tribe built their longhouses in the northern interiors of Sarawak midway on the Baram River, the upper Rejang River and the lower Tubau River, and were traditionally headhunters.

They are well known for their boat making skills. The Kayan people carve from a single block of belian, the strongest of the tropical hardwoods.[8]

Although many Kayan have become Christians, some still practise paganistic beliefs, but this is becoming more rare.[9]

Lun Bawang[edit]

The Lun Bawang are indigenous to the highlands of East Kalimantan, Brunei (Temburong District), southwest of Sabah (Interior Division) and northern region of Sarawak (Limbang Division). Lun Bawang people are traditionally agriculturalists and rear poultry, pigs and buffalo.

Lun Bawangs are also known to be hunters and fishermen. Alternatively, they are also collectively called the Murut of Sarawak and are closely related to the Lun Dayeh of Sabah , Kalimantan and Murut Brunei.[10]

Kelabit[edit]

With a population of approximately 6000, the Kelabit are inhabitants of Bario – a remote plateau in the Sarawak Highlands, slightly over 1,200 meters above sea level. The Kelabits form a tight-knit agrarian community and practicing unique agricultural practices for generations. Famous for their rice-farming, they also cultivate a variety of other crops which are suited to the cooler climate of the Highlands of Bario. The Kelabits are closely related to the Lun Bawang.

The Kelabit are predominantly Christian, the Bario Highlands having been visited by Christian missionaries many years ago. A Christian revival, the Bario revival changed them.[11]

Kenyah[edit]

With the population about 64,000, the Kenyah inhabit the Upper Belaga and upper Baram. There is little historical evidence regarding the exact origin of the Kenyah tribe. Their heartland however, is Long San, along the Baram River and Belaga along Rajang River. Their culture is very similar to that of the Kayan tribe with whom they live in close association.

The typical Kenyah village consists of only one longhouse. Most inhabitants are farmers, planting rice in burnt jungle clearings. With the rapid economic development, especially in timber industry, many of them work in timber camps.[citation needed]

Penan[edit]

The Penan are the only true nomadic people in Sarawak and are amongst the last of the world's hunter-gatherers.[1] The Penan make their home under the rainforest canopy, deep within the vast expanse of Sarawak's jungles. Even today, the Penan continue to roam the rainforest hunting wild boar and deer with blowpipes.[citation needed]

The Penan are skilled weavers and make high-quality rattan baskets and mats. The traditional Penan religion worships a supreme god called Bungan. However, the increasing number who have abandoned the nomadic lifestyle for settlement in longhouses have converted to Christianity.[12]

Punan Bah[edit]

Main article: Punan Bah people

Not to be confused with the Penan, the Punan Bah or Punan is a distinct ethnic group found in Sarawak, Malaysia. They are mostly found around the Bintulu area and also in Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of Borneo. They live on a mixed economy, engaging in swidden style of agriculture, with hill paddy as the main crop & supplemented by a range of other tropical plants. Hunting, fishing, and gathering of forest resources are the other important contributors to their economy. In recent times, many of the educated younger generation gradually migrated to urban areas such as Bintulu, Sibu, Kuching and Kuala Lumpur in search of better living & returning home occasionally, especially during major festivities such as Harvest Festival / or Bungan festival.

At the moment, the term Punan is often indiscriminately & collectively used to refer to the then unknown or yet to be classified tribes as such as Punan Busang, Penihing, Sajau Hovongan, Uheng Kareho, Merah, Aput, Tubu, Bukat, Ukit, Habongkot and Penyawung. There has been no effort to comprehensively study or research on this ensemble of tribes; these communities lack the privilege and are deprived of their rights to be recognised as individual & unique races (with their own tradition, language & cultural heritage) within the nation's list of ethnic classification, resulting to more than 20 different tribes / ethnics (unrelated to one another) found on the island of Borneo being lumped together into one ethnic group, which includes;

Punan Busang

Punan Penihing

Punan Batu

Punan Sajau

Punan Hovongan of Kapuas Hulu, West Kalimantan

Punan Uheng Kereho of Kapuas Hulu, West Kalimantan

Punan Murung of Murung Raya, Central Kalimantan

Punan Aoheng (Suku Dayak Pnihing) of East Kalimantan

Punan Merah (Siau)

Punan Aput

Punan Merap

Punan Tubu

Punan Ukit/Bukitan

Dayak Bukat

Punan Habongkot

Punan Panyawung

Sebop[edit]

The Sebop is one of the least known groups in Sarawak and they can be found in upper Tinjar river in the Miri Division of Sarawak. Within the Sebup group are the sub-groups that include Long Pekun, Maleng, Lirong, Long Kapah, Long Lubang, Teballau and Long Suku. Cultural researchers acknowledged that there is a Sebop stream in the Usun Apau from which the Sebop got their ethnic name. The Sebup ancestors were said to have lived in the adjacent valleys on the southern side of Usun Apau namely; Seping, Menapun, Menawan and Luar rivers before they moved north towards the Tinjar. Today the Sebup are found in Long Luyang, Long Batan, Long Selapun, Long Pala, Long Nuwah and Long Subeng. Amongst the longhouses, Long Luyang is the longest and most populated Sebop settlement. It comprises more than 100 units.

The Sebop are Christians and their cultural festival is Pesta Coen, a celebration that was used to mark the successful returned of their warriors (Lakin Ayau) from the battlefield. Today it is celebrated as a social cultural festival for everyone to return to the longhouse. Among the highlights of the celebration are the raising up of the gigantic ceremonial pole (Kelebong) as well as the traditional dances and songs.

Tagal[edit]

Main article: Murut people

Also known as "Murut Sabah", "Tagal" or "hill people", this indigenous subgroup of the Murut people can be found inhabiting the lowland areas around Lawas & Limbang. They are part of an interstate ethnic group that is found highly concentrated along the borderlands and inland areas of Sabah, Brunei, Kalimantan and Sarawak, with the majority in the former.

The Tagal are mostly shifting cultivators, with some hunting and riverine fishing on the side. They use the Tagol Murut language as the lingua franca of the whole group. It belongs to the North Bornean subdivision of the Austronesian language family. A majority of the Tagal people are Christians, with a few Muslims.

Bisaya[edit]

Main article: Bisaya (Borneo)

The Bisaya are an indigenous people, concentrated around the Limbang river in northern Sarawak state. Most Sarawakian Bisaya are Christians. The Bisaya are also found in Sabah (around Kuala Penyu and Beaufort). In Sabah, the majority of them are Muslims; the minority practice Christianity. Some of them still practice Paganism. They are believed to be distantly related to the Visayan of the Philippines. Legend belief is such that in the distant past, there were large migration of Bisaya to The Philippines. However the Bisaya dialect is more related to Malay language than the Philippines Visaya language. Such similarities may be due to the standardising effect and influence of the Malay Language has over the Borneon Bisaya as well as all other ethnic languages spoken in Malaysia.

Bisaya’s indigenous people have settled in Borneo for a long time. They are skilled in agriculture such as paddy planting and cultivation of gingers. They also hunt wild animals and rear domestic animals such as chicken, goat and buffaloes. Bisaya people are also skilled in catching fish, both in the rivers and sea.

Melanau[edit]

A replica of a traditional Melanau House

Main article: Melanau

The Melanaus have been thought to be amongst the original settlers of Sarawak.[13] They make up 4.9% of the population in Sarawak.

Originally from Mukah (the 10th Administrative Division as launched in March 2002), the Melanaus traditionally lived in tall houses. Nowadays, they have adopted a Malay lifestyle, living in kampong-type settlements. Traditionally, Melanaus were fishermen and still today, they are reputed as some of the finest boat-builders and craftsmen.[14]

While the Melanaus are ethnically different from the Malays, their lifestyles and practices are quite similar. This is especially the case in the larger towns and cities where most Melanau have adopted the Islamic faith.[15]

The Melanaus were believed to originally summon spirits in a practice verging on paganism. Today most of the Melanaus are Muslims whilst some were converted to Christianity (especially around Mukah & Dalat areas). However some still celebrate traditional animist festivals such as the annual Kaul festival in Mukah District.

Malay[edit]

Sarawakian Malay[edit]

Traditional Sarawakian Malay home

The Malays make up 22.9% of the population in Sarawak. Sarawak was a home for several former native Malay kingdoms, including the Sarawak Sultanate (1598–1641), Banting (16th century), Saribas (15th century), Samarahan (13th century) and Santubong (7th century).

Similar to the ethnogenesis development in many parts of Borneo, a large number of the Malays in Sarawak are indigenous to the land and were historically descendant from various native Bornean tribes that have adopted the Malay culture, language and the Islamic faith for centuries, drawn in a process known as Malayisation (Masuk Melayu).[16][17] At the same time, there are also other Sarawakian Malays that can traced their lineage from a diverse origin and ancestries, including Brunei, Sumatera, Natuna, Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan and other regions.

Traditionally fishermen, these seafaring people chose to form settlements on the banks of the many rivers of Sarawak, while others (the native tribes) were absorbed into the Malay identity since most of the historical contacts, religious conversion and assimilation were predominantly taken place in the rivers and coastal areas. Today, many Malays have migrated to the cities where they are heavily involved in the public and private sectors and taken up various professions.

Malay villages, known as Kampungs, are a cluster of wooden houses on stilts, many of which are still located by rivers on the outskirts of major towns and cities, play home to traditional cottage industries. The Malays are famed for their wood carvings, silver and brass craftings as well as traditional Malay textile weaving with silver and gold thread (kain songket). Malay in Sarawak have a distinct dialect which is called Sarawak Malay. It has many elements of the Sambas language spoken before contact with the Bruneian sultanate. The culture of Sarawakian Malay is also somewhat unusual such as bermukun, Sarawak zapin, and keringkam weaving. It is possible, though insufficient studies exist, that these are remnants of the Sambas sultanate’s culture, prior to a change in identity and the speaking of a unique hybrid of Malay-Sambas by the previously Sambas speaking natives.

In Federal Constitution, Malays are Muslim by religion, having been converted to the faith some 600 years ago with the Islamification of the native region. Their religion is reflected in their culture and art and Islamic symbolism is evident in local architecture – from homes to government buildings. In Malaysia, people of Indonesian descent: Javanese, Bugis, and Banjar are constitutionally classified as Malays, and have the same rights should they become a citizen.

Kedayan[edit]

Main article: Kedayan

The Kedayan are an ethnic group residing in parts of Sarawak. They are also known as Kadayan, Kadaian or simply badly spelled as Kadyan by the British. The Kedayan language is spoken by more than 35,000 people in Sarawak, with most of the members of the Kedayan community residing in Lawas, Limbang, Miri and Sibuti areas. A sizable community also exists in Brunei Darussalam and Sabah.

The Kedayans is believed to have Javanese origins. The British Resident Malcolm McArthur attests to their Javanese origins in his Report on Brunei 1904.[18] Meanwhile, historians such as Pehin Jamil claimed the Kedayans were bought over from Java to Borneo by Sultan Bolkiah the 5th during his famous conquests of Borneo.[19] This was due to the Kedayan's prowess in padi farming and other agricultural abilities. Other researchers consider them indigenous to Borneo, having accepted Islam and influenced by Malay culture, primarily by Bruneians.

Kedayan are mainly padi farmers or fishermen. They have a reputation for knowledge of medicinal plants, which they grow to treat a wide range of ailments or to make tonics. The Kedayan tend to settle inland in a cluster pattern, with houses built in the centre and with fields radiating outwards. The Kedayans traditionally tended to be a rather closed community, discouraging contact with outsiders. Intermarriage among relatives was encouraged for economic and social reasons.

Javanese[edit]

Main article: Javanese people

The present generation are descended from the original ethnic Javanese people, the majority from the province of Central Java, who arrived in Sarawak as "kuli kontrak", indentured servants who were brought in by the Dutch via Batavia (modern-day Jakarta) during the late 1800s to the 1940s & transferred to a British company to work in the rubber plantations. After the end of their contracts, some of them had decided to settle down & work on land no longer producing rubber. Over the years, these labourers were prosperous & were later given the right of ownership to several hectares of land.

An estimated 5,000 Javanese people are found all over the state, establishing their own villages, with the majority concentrated in Kuching & its surrounding areas. Some of the younger generation still carry traditional Javanese names & are identified as ethnic Javanese in their birth certificates. They are proud of their heritage; the current population still speak the language of their parents & retaining their age-old traditions & practices of their forefathers.

The friendly Javanese are traditionally Muslims, so they have a strong affinity with the Malays, with many of them intermarrying & living within Malay-majority areas & also other communities. They use Sarawak Malay or English as a common lingua franca to communicate with the other ethnic groups.

Bugis[edit]

Main article: Bugis

The Bugis are an ethnic group which had originated from the southwestern province of Sulawesi, Indonesia. They are renowned around the archipelago as adventurous seafarers and merchants, establishing trading routes with other ports along Sarawak's coastal areas over the past few centuries, eventually settling down with their families or taking up local spouses. The Bugis artisans are noted for their expertise in building tongkangs & proas, plying their skills at the fishing villages and local dockyards. They are also skilled farmers, construction workers, traders and fishermen.

The Bugis population in Sarawak is scattered throughout the state. Many can be found living along the coast alongside or within other communities and also opening up small agricultural settlements further inland, especially in the Sarikei district. They are predominantly Muslims and many have amalgamated with the local Muslim society through marriage.

Indian/South Asian[edit]

Main article: Malaysian Indian Main article: South Asian

The Indians and generally South Asians in Sarawak are a small geographical and ethno-cultural community, estimated to be between 6,500 people (figure also includes those of mixed parentage and professionals, students and residents from other parts of Malaysia), found mainly in the urban exteriors of Kuching and Miri division. The majority of Indians in Sarawak are Tamils. There are also other Indians minorities from the Punjabi Sikhs, Telugus, Sindhis and Keralites ethnic groups.

The Sikhs were among the earliest South Asians to set foot on Sarawak's soil, recruited by the first White Rajah, Sir James Brooke in Singapore as police officers to bring peace, law and order during the 1857 Chinese uprising in Bau. At a much later stage, the Sikhs were employed as security personnel for the Sarawak Shell Company in Miri and also as government-appointed prison wardens. It is also believed that there were a few Sikhs in the Sarawak Rangers, which was formed in 1872.

As for the Tamils and other minority Indian ethnic groups, their history in the state began during the 1860s, when they were brought in from South India by the second White Rajah Charles Brooke to work in the tea and coffee plantations at Matang Hills. They were also traders and travelers visiting the state for religious, educational or business opportunities. After many years, the South Asian community had extended to include newer immigrants from Sri Lanka, Pakistan and other areas in India. The Indian Muslims were prominent in the restaurant business, textile trade & Indian food production. They were also instrumentally significant in their contribution to the Islamic fellowship and religious welfare in the state with their Muslim Malay brethren.

Many of the present-day Sarawak South Asians are from mixed marriages with the Malays, Chinese & other Sarawak native ethnic groups, with many of the younger generation using English, Sarawak Malay or one of the native or Chinese dialects to communicate with everybody else. They have assimilated well within the state's general population as a culturally distinct group in Sarawak that is rather unique as opposed to the Indian diaspora of Peninsular Malaysia and the Asian region in general. A number of Sarawak Indians can be found working as doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers and other professional careers in the government and private sectors.

Eurasian[edit]

Mixed marriages/unions between Europeans and local spouses have been going on for centuries, since the time European traders, sailors and colonists first set foot on Sarawak's soils.

The Eurasians in Sarawak continues to be the smallest of minorities, with many of them rather identifying themselves with the major racial denomination of their local parent rather than that of their European, Australian or American parent, as the local state government does not formally classify them as an official ethnicity. At the moment, the exact number of people in the local Eurasian community is not known, as many of them registered themselves (for administrative and social ease) as Iban, Bidayuh, Chinese, Malay, Melanau, Orang Ulu, Indian or simply under "others". Besides assimilating themselves into the general populace, many of them had also migrated to Peninsular Malaysia or their foreign parents' countries of origin.

The local Eurasians established the Sarawak Eurasian Association (SEA) in the year 2000 to foster closer ties among members of this community and also to raise awareness on the existence of this distinct group. Their association is quite unique, if compared to the Eurasian associations of Peninsular Malaysia, as it is composed by members of different religious faiths.

Sinitic people[edit]

A Paifang in Malaysia-China Friendship Park, Kuching

Main article: Malaysian Chinese

Chinese records has shown that China had a trading contact with Borneo as early as 600 A.D. when a country known as "Po Ni" (present day Brunei) sent tribute to Tang Emperor. When British explorer James Brooke arrived in Borneo in 1839, there were several hundred Chinese working in pepper plantations there. The first Hakka migrants worked as labourers in the gold mines at Bau. This was followed by the migration of Fuzhou people to the Rajang basin in 1900s, working as farmers in cash crop industries such as pepper, rubber, sago, and oil palm. Meanwhile, Hokkien people from the Xiamen area, worked as merchants. Lastly, the Cantonese people, who made up majority of the sinitic people population in the Peninsular Malaysia, not been really attracted to Sarawak.[20]

As of 1989, 30% of Sarawak Chinese population was made up of ethnic Hakka, followed by Fuzhounese (30%), Hokkien (12%), and Cantonese (8%). The Sinitic people made up 73% of the population in Kuching and 77% in Sibu.[20]

Through their clan associations, business acumen and work ethic, the Sinitic people organised themselves economically and rapidly dominated commerce. Today, the Sinitic people are amongst Sarawak's most prosperous ethnic groups.

Today, they make up 17.1% of the population of Sarawak (as reported by Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM) in 2021), and consist of communities built from the economic migrants of the 19th and early 20th centuries.

The Sarawak Sinitic people belong to a wide range of ethnic groups, the most significant being:

Hakka

Hokkien

Chaoshanese

Teochew

Shanghainese

Hainanese

Kwongsai

Cantonese

Minnanese

Fujianese

Fuzhounese

Puxian Min

Whereas Hakka is spoken predominantly by the farmers in the interior, Hokkien and Teochew are the dominant languages spoken within the major trading towns and among early traders and businessmen. Hainanese (a.k.a. Hailam) were well known as coffee-shop operators, the Henghua are famous as fishermen. The notable difference between the Sarawakian Sinitic people and those presiding in West Malaysia is the latter’s common use of Cantonese. Malaysian Mandarin however, has become the unifying language spoken by all the distinct ethnic groups with sinitic origins in both East and West Malaysia, replicating China. The Hakka people in Kuching, Sarawak came from Jieyang, Guangdong. The Hokkien came from Zhao'an, Fujian. The Teochew came from Shantou and Chaozhou in Guangdong, the Shanghainese came from Shanghai, Hainanese from Hainan, Cantonese from Guangdong, Fuzhounese from Fuzhou, Fujian. The Kwongsai people came from Guangxi, Chaoshanese people came from Chaoshan, Minnanese people came from Xiamen, Lastly the Henghuas or Hinghwa or Puxian people from Putian, Fujian.

The Sinitic people maintain their ethnic heritage and culture and celebrate all the major cultural festivals, most notably Lunar New Year, the Hungry Ghost Festival and Christmas. The Sarawak Sinitic people are predominantly Buddhists and Christians.

Religions of Sarawak[edit]

Religion in Sarawak (2022)[21]

Religion

Percent

Christianity

 

50.1%

Islam

 

34.2%

Buddhism

 

12.8%

No religion

 

2.2%

Others

 

0.5%

Christianity is the largest religion in Sarawak, representing 50.1% of the total population according to the 2020 census.[21] Sarawakians practice a variety of religions, including Christianity, Chinese folk religion (a fusion of Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism and ancestor worship), Islam, Baha’i Faith and animism.[22] Unsurprisingly, the issue of Islam as state religion divides the Muslim and non-Muslims with a contrasting 85% supporting and opposing, respectively. Nevertheless, 93% of Sarawakians consider their regional Sarawak identity to be their first choice in defining themselves which is in stark contrast to Peninsular Malaysia where 55% see religion as their most important identity marker. This is in line with the Malaccan Sultanate from which the Malay language and culture stems.[23] Adopting a common name, language and religion has united the various West Malaysian indigenous communities and many Sambas indigenous people of Kuching. Sarawakians across all religions express majority support for increased autonomy for the state - at 76% overall.[24]

Christianity[edit]

Main article: Christianity in Malaysia

St. Joseph's Cathedral, Kuching, a Roman Catholic cathedral in Kuching, Sarawak.

Christianity makes up the largest religion in Sarawak. Sarawak is the state with the highest percentage of Christians in Malaysia and the only state with a Christian majority. According to the 2020 census, Christians make up 50.1% of the population of Sarawak.[21]

Protestants, mostly Anglicans, make up the majority, followed by more than 441,300 Catholics. [25] Other Christian denominations in Sarawak include Methodists, Borneo Evangelical Church (or Sidang Injil Borneo, S.I.B.) and Baptists. Many Sarawakian Christians are mostly non-Malay Bumiputera, ranging from Iban, Bidayuh, Orang Ulu, Murut and Melanau.

Denomination of Christians in Sarawak may vary according to their race, although this is not necessarily true. For example, most Chinese Christians are Methodists, most Ibans and Bidayuhs are either Roman Catholics or Anglicans, whilst most Orang Ulu are S.I.B.s. Church plays an important part in shaping morality of the communities, while many Christians view the church as a religious place. Professing Christianity has led to the abolition of some previous rituals by indigenous ethnics such as headhunting and improper disposal of dead bodies. Since the majority of people indigenous to Sarawak are Christians, these people have adopted Christian names in English or Italian, such as Valentino, Joseph, and Constantine. Almost 93% of the Iban, Kelabit, and Bidayuh have changed their traditional names to English names since they converted to Christianity. Many young indigenous Iban, Kelabit, and Bidayuh people in Sarawak will not practice the ceremonies of their ancestors such as Miring, the worship of Singalang Burung (local deity), and celebration of Gawai Antu. The Bidayuhs are mainly Pagans or animists before they convert to Christianity and they believe in ancestral worship and in the ancient spirits of nature. Due to this, they have big celebrations like the Gawai (1 June), which is a celebration to please the padi spirit for a good harvest and nowadays, since 60% of the population has converted to Christianity, the young Bidayuh generation will celebrate only Christmas as their first priority. Christians among indigenous ethnics have also embraced many Christian values such as preserving modesty and dedication to God.[14]

Christianity has also contributed to the betterment of the education system in Sarawak. There were a lot of missionary schools built during the 1950s to early 1980s.[26] Christianity has gained popularity throughout Sarawak, transcending race and religion. Due to federalisation of the education system, most of these missionary schools have been converted into government national schools. Participation of the church in these schools has been reduced. The Malaysian government has allowed the schools to continue using religious symbols on school buildings and teaching Christian values to non-Muslim students.[27]

Christians in Sarawak observe many Christian festivals just like their counterparts in other part of the world, namely Christmas Day, Good Friday, Easter Monday, All Soul's Day, and Ascension Day. However, only Christmas and Good Friday are public holidays in Sarawak.[28]

Islam[edit]

Main article: Islam in Malaysia

Kuching Mosque

Islam is the second-largest religion in Sarawak, after Christianity. According to the 2020 census, 34.2% of Sarawak's population were Muslim.[21] All Malay-speaking Muslims are designated Malays by the Malaysian Constitution.[29] Malay Muslim culture contributes significantly to Sarawakian Muslim tradition as a whole especially for weddings, circumcision (coming of age ritual), 'majlis doa selamat', etc. Sarawak Malays were originally a mixture of Malay migrants from the rest of Southeast Asian archipelago that migrated to the area hundreds of years ago. They intermarried with local ethnic groups such as Pegu, Bliun and Seru, these ethnic groups were later absorbed into ethnic Sarawak Malay identity.[30]

Other ethnic groups such as Melanaus and Miriek have retained their languages in whole and have strong Islamic influence in their traditions from their ancestors. Sarawak was once home to various Islamic-Malay kingdoms such as Saribas, Melano, Santubong and Kalaka, etc.[31] They have also absorbed traditions from the Malaccan sultanate.[32] Melanaus, depending on which region or kampung they live in, are normally either Muslim or Christian (while a small number are pagans). Most of them live in Kuching, Matu, Mukah, Igan and Bintulu. About 65% of Melanau people are of the Sunni Muslim belief while the remaining 35% are either Christians or animists.[33]

Kedayan is another distinct ethnic group from Malay and Melanau, but have been Muslim since the time of the Brunei Sultanate, another ally of the Malaccan Sultanate [34] Although small in number, with the majority of their closest kin living in Brunei, they contribute to a majority of the Muslim population in Sibuti and Bekenu district. Despite being designated as a distinct ethnic group, they speak a dialect of Brunei Malay.

Administratively, Islam is under the authority of the state of Islamic Council, which is Majlis Islam Sarawak (MIS), a state government agency. Under MIS, there are various agencies dealing with various aspects of Islam such as Jabatan Agama Islam Sarawak (JAIS), Majlis Fatwa and Baitulmal Sarawak.[35]

Muslims in Sarawak observe all Islamic festivals, such as Hari Raya Aidilfitri (Puasa), Hari Raya Aidiladha (Haji), Awal Muharram and Maulidur Rasul. All these celebrations have been commenced as public holidays in Sarawak. However, Israk Mikraj, Awal Ramadhan and Nuzul Quran, although observed, are not public holidays.[36]

Buddhism/Taoism[edit]

Tua Pek Kong Temple, Sibu

Main article: Buddhism in Malaysia

Buddhism is the traditional religion of the overseas Chinese community in Sarawak, brought by their ancestors before the Cultural Revolution in China. According to the 2020 census, 12.8% of Sarawakians were Buddhist.[21] Many of the Sarawakian Chinese community, which comprises the bulk of the Buddhist population, actually practise a mixture of Buddhism, Taoism and Chinese folk religion. As there is no official name for this particular set of beliefs, many followers instead list down their religion as Buddhism, mainly for bureaucratic convenience. Buddhists from other ethnic especially Bumiputera are rare and almost insignificant to be related with, perhaps in small community with humble and low profile practice of the Buddhist ceremony among some Bumiputra

people in Sarawak.

Buddhists in Sarawak observe Wesak Day. It is a public holiday in Sarawak.

Hinduism[edit]

Main article: Hinduism in Malaysia

Unlike their fellow Peninsular Malaysians, Sarawak Hindus are very small in number. Almost all Hindus in Sarawak are Indians, while some are Chinese and other indigenous people through inter-marriages. There are less than 10 Hindu temples throughout Sarawak, most of them are located in Kuching and Miri. Currently there are 5,000 Hindus (representing 0.2% of the population) in Sarawak.

Hindus in Sarawak observe Deepavali and Thaipusam. However, none of these festivals are public holidays in Sarawak.

Sikhism[edit]

Main article: Sikhism in Malaysia

Gurdwara Sahib in Kuching

The first Gurdwara was built in 1911 in Kuching, built by the Sikh community of pioneers in the state, mainly police and security personnel. At the present, there are four known Gurdwaras in the state, with one each located in Kuching, Miri, Sibu and Bau, with the latter no longer in existence since the late 1950s, due to the fact that there were no longer any Sikhs in that area.

Besides being used as places of worship, the Gurdwaras also hold weekly Gurmukhi classes and also serve as community centres for the thriving Sikh community.

Baháʼí Faith[edit]

Main article: Baháʼí Faith

Baháʼí is one of the recognised religions in Sarawak. Various races embraced the Baháʼí Faith, from Chinese to Iban, Bidayuh, Bisayahs, Penans and Indians. In towns, the majority Baháʼí community is often Chinese, but in rural communities, they are of all races, Ibans, Bidayuhs, etc. In some schools, Baháʼí associations or clubs for students exist.

Baháʼí communities are now found in all the various divisions of Sarawak. However, these communities do not accept assistance from government or other organisations for activities which are strictly for Baháʼís. If, however, these services extend to include non-Baháʼís also, e.g. education for children's classes adult literacy, then sometimes the community does accept assistance.

The administration of the Baháʼí Faith is through Local Spiritual Assemblies. There is no priesthood among the Baháʼís. Election is held annually without nomination or electioneering. The Baháʼís should study the community and seek those members who display mature experience, loyalty, are knowledgeable in the Faith.

There are more than 45,000 Baháʼís in more than 230 localities in Sarawak.

Animism[edit]

Main article: Animism

Many Dayak especially Iban continue to practice traditional ceremonies, particularly with dual marriage rites and during the important harvest and ancestral festivals such as Gawai Dayak, Gawai Kenyalang and Gawai Antu.

Other ethnicities who have a rapidly dwindling and trace amount of animism practitioners are Melanau and Bidayuh.

See also[edit]

Demographics of Sabah

Demographics of Malaysia

References[edit]

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^ "TABURAN PENDUDUK MENGIKUT PBT & MUKIM 2010". Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Retrieved 15 December 2017.

^ "Iban as a koine language in Sarawak". 1 May 2023.

^ a b c d Journey Malaysia. Journey Malaysia. Retrieved on 29 August 2021.

^ Tourism Malaysia USA Archived 20 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Tourism Malaysia USA. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ LongHuse Archived 5 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Longhouse.org.my (15 October 2009). Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Vtaide. Vtaide. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Heesyam, Faizal. (27 July 2010) Discover Borneo. Discover Borneo. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ XFab Archived 15 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. XFab. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Sri Lankan News Web Archived 24 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Srilankanewsweb.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Bulan, Solomon and Bulan-Dorai, L (2014), The Bario Revival, HomeMatters Network

^ Discover Borneo. Discover Borneo. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Gomiri Archived 20 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Gomiri. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ a b Museum of Learning. Museumstuff.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Melanau | The Grown Ups. Swingrownups.wordpress.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ "Some Aspects of Iban-Maloh Contact in West Kalimantan" (PDF). 7 May 2023.

^ "Asal usul Melayu Sarawak: Menjejaki titik tak pasti". 1 May 2023.

^ McArthur, M. S. H. (1987). Report on Brunei in 1904. Ohio University Center for International Studies.

^ Al-Sufri, M. J., & Hassan, M. A. (2000). Tarsilah Brunei: the early history of Brunei up to 1432 AD (Vol. 1). Brunei History Centre, Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports.

^ a b Zepp, Raymond (March 1989). "The Chinese in Sarawak". Bulletin de Sinologie. Nouvelle Série. French Centre for Research on Contemporary China (53): 19–21. JSTOR 43436606.

^ a b c d e "Census Dashboard". Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Retrieved 1 March 2023.

^ Tititudorancea. Tititudorancea. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Sneddon, James N. (2003), The Indonesian language: its history and role in modern society, University of New South Wales Press, ISBN 0-86840-598-1, pp. 74–77

^ Hock Guan, Lee (April 2018). "The ISEAS Borneo Survey: Autonomy, Identity, Islam and Language/Education in Sarawak" (PDF). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. 19: 3–8.

^ Ruling coalition holds Malaysia's Christian-majority state, Union of Catholic Asian News, Dec 2021

^ Travel Malaysia. Go2travelmalaysia.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Network Base. Networkbase.info. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ One Stop Malaysia Archived 21 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine. One Stop Malaysia. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Tititudorrancea. Tititudorancea.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ "Mencari kaum yang hilang di Sarawak". 29 July 2016.

^ Al-Sufri, M. J. (1990). Tarsilah Brunei: sejarah awal dan perkembangan Islam (Vol. 1). Jabatan Pusat Sejarah, Kementerian Kebudayaan Belia dan Sukan.

^ Andaya, Barbara Watson; Andaya, Leonard Y. (2015). A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400-1830. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88992-6.

^ Borneo Tropicana. Borneo Tropicana. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann K. S.; Lewis, Bernard (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 2A, The Indian Sub-Continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim West. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29137-8.

^ Travel Malaysia. Go2travelmalaysia.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

^ Go Malaysia. Go Malaysia. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.

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Indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities in Sarawak in Malaysia - Minority Rights Group

Indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities in Sarawak in Malaysia - Minority Rights Group Please note that on our website we use cookies to enhance your experience, and for analytics purposes. To learn more about our cookies, please read our privacy policy. By clicking ‘Allow cookies’, you agree to our use of cookies. By clicking ‘Decline’, you don’t agree to our Privacy Policy. Decline Allow cookies World map Donate Search en No translations available HomeAbout usWho we areLearn more about MRG, find staff and board members and discover our history.What we doFind out more about our strategy and activities.Coalitions and networksWe belong to numerous coalitions and networks where we join efforts with like-minded organizations on issues concerning minority and indigenous rights.Funders and annual reportsOur work would not be possible without the support of our funders. 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Sign up to our newsletter VoicesNewsGet the latest insights, updates and statements from our staff, partners and allies.Minority storiesExplore some of our reports in online multimedia formats.Sofa TalksInterviews with inspiring minority and indigenous activists.VoicesGet the latest insights, updates and statements from our staff, partners and allies. Sign up to our newsletter Get involvedPartner with usHere, you can find information about our partnership process and what to expect every step of the way.EventsRegister now for events, webinars, conferences and more featuring minority and indigenous community members, activists and experts.Train with usWe have trained thousands of minority and indigenous activists in advocacy, campaigning, communications, law and more.Support usTogether, we can support minority and indigenous communities as they strive to defend their rights.DonateYour support, big or small, would mean the world to us. Make a one-off or regular donation today to support our work.Get involvedLearn how you can join our movement for minority and indigenous rights, from events and trainings to formal partnerships. Sign up to our newsletter World map Sign up to our newsletter Home / World map / Malaysia / Indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities in Sarawak in Malaysia Indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities in Sarawak in Malaysia Return to world map Profile Ethnicity: Iban, Bidayuh, Chinese, Malay First language/s: Iban, Bidayuh, Malay, Hakka, Hokchiu, Cantonese, Hokkien Religion/s: Christianity, Animism, Islam, Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism Sarawak has a population of more than 2.6 million, made up of some 26 different ethnic groups. The non-Muslim indigenous communities are collectively called Dayaks – most of whom are Christians or practise animist beliefs – and they account for about 40 per cent of Sarawak’s inhabitants. The two biggest ethnic groups within the Dayak community are the Iban (also known as Sea Dayak), making up 30 per cent of the population, and the Bidayuh; others include the Kenyah, Kayan, Kedayan, Murut, Punan, Bisayah, Kelabit, Berawan and Penan. Dayaks who live in the interior of Sarawak are sometimes referred to as Orang Ulu, or people from the interior. Members of this group typically live in longhouses and practise shifting cultivation; they engage in fishing to supplement their diet if they live near a river. Only a few hundred of the Eastern Penan continue to live as a nomadic people of the rainforest. The Chinese, at around 24 per cent, make up the second largest ethnic group in Sarawak, though they themselves can be subdivided as including speakers of Hakka, Fu-chou (Hokchiu), Cantonese and Hokkien. Most live in urban areas and are Buddhists or Christians or practise Taoism. The number of Malays has increased to about 24 per cent of Sarawak’s population. They are in fact a heterogeneous group of people since many are probably the descendants of indigenous peoples who started to convert to Islam from the fifteenth century and became Malay through their adoption of the Malay language. Like the Chinese, they constitute a large percentage of the coastal and urban population. Historical context Sarawak was until relatively recently mainly inhabited by indigenous peoples present on the island of Borneo for thousands of years. Others, such as the Melanau and Malays, are thought to have migrated much later, after the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The Chinese arrived later still, mainly in two distinct waves, first in the mid-eighteenth century in the gold-rich areas of Bau and then in the early twentieth century. Like Sabah, Sarawak was loosely under the control of the Sultan of Brunei until James Brooke became governor of Sarawak in 1841 and was then appointed Rajah by the Sultan in 1842. Members of the Brooke family were to rule Sarawak – and become known as the White Rajahs – until 1946. For much of that century, the Brookes governed with local Malays and Melanau, though they also used Dayaks as the backbone of their army and encouraged Chinese immigration into urban areas. After the end of Japanese occupation in 1945, the Rajah formally ceded sovereignty to the British Crown in 1946 and Sarawak became a British colony in 1946, though some members of the Brooke dynasty resisted its cession to Britain. Despite opposition by a significant proportion of its population, Sarawak became an autonomous state of the federation of Malaysia in 1963. Because of the very large size of the Iban indigenous people, between 1948 and 1963 its language was the lingua franca between the ethnic communities. It was also the language of government for official purposes, including in court, and was taught as a school subject. As in Sabah, the integration of Sarawak into Malaysia in 1963 only occurred after a high level of autonomy for the state and a number of special laws secured the protection of the very large indigenous populations. From the 1970s, much of these legal protections were to be increasingly eroded – despite occasional victories in court – as the exploitation of the region’s natural resources expanded, particularly logging, plantations, oil and gas. The last decades have also seen the incremental transfer of Dayak customary land by the government for logging and plantation activities through various means. The lack of protection of indigenous languages in the Malaysian Constitution also led to public schools operating increasingly and almost exclusively in Malay, and to an apparent decrease in the use of indigenous languages in broadcasting in recent years. In the 1990s, Dayak staged small-scale protests against excessive logging in their immediate surroundings. The government responded by detaining protesters and protecting the logging operations, which are covertly owned by leading Sarawak politicians. In 1994, a decision was made to build the Bakun Dam, South-East Asia’s largest, resulting in about 10,000 indigenous people being relocated to a longhouse settlement named Sungai Asap. Despite controversy about the impact on the environment and local indigenous populations, and the postponement of the project on two occasions, the dam project was re-launched in 2000 and came into operation in 2011. Its construction has left thousands of indigenous residents displaced, struggling with debt and cut off from their traditional sources of livelihood. Political parties representing Dayak interests succeeded in gaining a substantial number of seats in the Sarawak Assembly in the 1980s, but have since then weakened dramatically, partially as a result of their deregistration – under sometimes dubious grounds – and of internal divisions. Current issues The prominent role of Malay as the country’s national language has led it to almost completely supplant English and indigenous languages, particularly Iban, in schools and government. Though English is still taught widely, Iban is only taught as a subject in one school in Kuching, and in less than half of the state’s primary schools which have more than 50 per cent Iban students. This language preference, which appears discriminatory in the context of Sarawak, has contributed greatly to the increased marginalization of many indigenous peoples in terms of access to employment opportunities predicated on fluency in Malay, and may also be contributing to an extremely high level of school drop-outs. The continued use by the Malaysian government and private companies of large tracts of indigenous customary lands for oil palm plantations and other development projects continues to be a highly charged area of controversy, despite theoretical legal protections and a few recent court victories. In 2009, for instance, the Federal Court in Malaysia ruled that indigenous peoples in Sarawak have rights to their lands, used for hunting, gathering and crop production. It was a landmark case, as previously there was little legal precedent recognizing rights over traditional lands.  Yet indigenous communities continue to struggle to secure their land rights in the face of aggressive development programmes, often pushed through with the support and patronage of state officials. In particular Orang Ulu, also known as Dayaks, face growing threats to their traditional lands from the rapid spread of logging, palm oil companies and large-scale hydropower dams. Many thousands of Orang Ulu have been forcibly displaced over the past few years to make way for a series of controversial mega-dams in Borneo, forming the Sarawak Corridor for Renewable Energy (SCORE). Malaysia’s various dam developments have been further tainted by widespread evidence of corruption involving state officials, including Sarawak’s former Chief Minister Taib Mahmud. In 2013, an undercover investigation by UK-based NGO Global Witness exposed rampant nepotism and corruption involving Mahmud in the exploitation of Sarawak’s rainforests and its inhabitants for personal profit.The film documents how the chief minister accepts multimillion-dollar ‘kickbacks’ for the distribution of plantation licences, while allocating cheap land concessions to a nexus of family members: these are subsequently sold off at enormous profits through murky transactions in Singapore, forcing indigenous populations from their traditional lands. In Sarawak, a growing number of indigenous youths are migrating to urban centres in search of work and educational opportunities. This process has largely been driven by Malaysia’s rapid rate of deforestation, which has eroded the traditional livelihoods and lands of indigenous forest dwellers. Nearly 70 per cent of the highland Kelabit tribe in Sarawak has migrated to urban areas and, according to a 2013 survey, the population of Baram dropped from 80,000 to 20,000 in a decade. Activists have warned that the proliferation of new dams will exacerbate this trend. Hunter-gatherer tribes such as the Penan are particularly vulnerable during resettlement as they often lack the occupational skills suited to life outside the forest. This has contributed to the urbanization of poverty among Sarawak’s indigenous population, who already form a significant percentage of squatters in cities such as Miri. However, the Sarawak government maintains that new hydropower dams will boost rural development and discourages Orang Ulu from migrating to cities. Updated January 2018 Donate We stand up for minority and indigenous rights. Find out how Leart more about us £15/month Related content Minority stories 25 February 2016 Life at the Margins: The Challenges of Multiple Discrimination Minorities and indigenous peoples, already marginalised, face further challenges on account of other aspects of their identity – their age, gender, livelihood, disabilities, sexuality or gender identity. East Africa Discrimination Minority stories Learn more Learn more Our strategy We work with ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities, and indigenous peoples to secure their rights and promote understanding between communities. Learn more Stories Discover the latest insights from our global network of staff, partners and allies. 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Sarawak’s rich ethnicity full of diversity | The Star

Sarawak’s rich ethnicity full of diversity | The Star

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Sarawak’s rich ethnicity full of diversity

By JOSEPH KAOS Jr

Nation

Tuesday, 23 Jul 2019

12:00 AM MYT

Sensational Sarawak: Part of the crowd that turned up at the Sarawak Day rally dressed in traditional attire at Padang Merdeka in Kuching.

DID you know that there are close to 30 different ethnic groups in Sarawak? Me neither! But yes, the Land of the Hornbills is so rich with diversity, little known facts about the state like these continue to surprise every day.This is why many Sarawakians abhor very much the term “Others (lain-lain) used by those in peninsula to conveniently term the many native tribes of Malaysian Borneo.

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Ethnicity and Ethnic Identity in Sarawak | Semantic Scholar

Ethnicity and Ethnic Identity in Sarawak | Semantic Scholar

Skip to search formSkip to main contentSkip to account menuSemantic ScholarSemantic Scholar's LogoSearch 217,149,800 papers from all fields of scienceSearchSign InCreate Free AccountCorpus ID: 56230564Ethnicity and Ethnic Identity in Sarawak@article{Jehom1999EthnicityAE,

title={Ethnicity and Ethnic Identity in Sarawak},

author={Welyne Jeffrey Jehom},

journal={Akademika},

year={1999},

volume={55},

url={https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:56230564}

}Welyne Jeffrey JehomPublished 1 July 1999SociologyAkademikaEthnicity and ethnic identity are diffcult subjects and highly problematic. This paper is a modest attempt to discuss the problem of ethnicity and ethnic identity of the diverse ethnic groups in Sarawak. It begins by discussing the approaches in the study of ethnic group, ethnicity and identity, followed by a detailed discussion of the problematic of ethnic classification and ethnic identities of Sarawakians. It suggests that authority-defined identity, i.e., ethnic identity imposed by those in… Expandejournals.ukm.mySave to LibrarySaveCreate AlertAlertCiteShare16 CitationsHighly Influential Citations1Background Citations2View AllTables from this papertable 116 CitationsCitation TypeHas PDFAuthorMore FiltersMore FiltersFiltersSort by RelevanceSort by Most Influenced PapersSort by Citation CountSort by RecencyEthnic Pluralism and Ethnic Relations in SarawakWelyne Jeffrey JehomSociology2002This paper discusses the historical and contemporary dynamics of ethnic pluralism and ethnic relations in Sarawak The discussion is based on numerous in-depth interviews that were conducted… Expand10SaveSikhism’s Identity and Challenges in Malaysia: A Literature ReviewAman Daima Md. ZainM. S. IsmailSociology2018The question of Sikhism’s identity and its challenges in the context of a multi-racial society in Malaysia is worthy of discussion because it involves the majority-minority relationship between… ExpandPDF1 ExcerptSaveIban Pop Song: Identity, Unity, and BelongingAbell MusiBong-Ho CheeNur Afiqah binti Mohamad SaidNoor Athirah binti ZainiNur Fatin Najihah GhazaliCollin JeromeSociology2022Popular music has been known to convey a sense of togetherness and affiliation among diverse populations in multiethnic and multicultural nations. Malaysia is a unique case where local mainstream… ExpandSaveRace-based affirmative action in Malaysia: Misrecognised subjectivities, enduring inequalitiesPeng LiewSociologyAsian Journal of Social Science2021PDFSaveDUANG: THE SEMIOTIC INTERPRETATION AND PERCEPTION OF THE BAJAU-SAMA COMMUNITY IN SABAHH. S. M. YakinSaidatul Nornis Hj. MahaliSociology2008Sabah is not only famous for its beautiful and breathtaking fauna and flora, it is also known for its multiethnicity which has more than 40 different ethnic groups including the sub-ethnic groups.… Expand8PDFSaveThe Role of Indigenous Languages in Schools: The Case of SarawakS. TingYvonne Michelle CampbellLinguistics, Education2017This chapter describes the role of indigenous languages in Sarawak schools, beginning with a brief background on the diversity of languages and indigenous language use patterns in the state. This is… Expand3SaveRethinking Visions of “Unity” and “Belonging”: Insights into Audience Responses Towards Popular Music of Malaysia’s Indigenous Ethnic Communities – A Case of Iban Pop SongCollin JeromeSu-Hie TingEsther John PerrySociology, ArtKajian Malaysia2022This article presents the findings of a larger ongoing study that explores visions of “unity” and “belonging” among present-day Malaysians that are shaped by their engagements with popular music… Expand3SaveMaterial culture: A digital documentation of the art and culture of the Saribas Malay, SarawakS. FaridahHasan RahahTerry LucasArt, History2018TLDRThe finding from the interview sessions with the Saribas community shows a positive indication towards the effort to preserve material culture through documentation and simple template proposed is said to be sufficient to record the basic information of their made, used and possessed artefacts.ExpandSaveReasons for Differences in Educational Attainment and Employment Participation of Bidayuh Men and WomenN. LyndonM. IsmailSociology, Education2007This article reports on reasons for differences in educational attainment and employment participation of Bidayuh men and women in the State of Sarawak, Malaysia. Data were gathered through in-depth… ExpandPDFSaveDigital access, choice and agency in remote SarawakC. HornE. RennieSociologyTelematics Informatics201810Save...12...29 ReferencesCitation TypeHas PDFAuthorMore FiltersMore FiltersFiltersSort by RelevanceSort by Most Influenced PapersSort by Citation CountSort by RecencyEthnicity and NationalismT. EriksenSociology1993'As a introduction to the study of ethnicity, [this] book will do excellently.' Ethnologia Scandinavica Ethnicity and nationalism are pervasive features of the contemporary world, but how far is… Expand7982 ExcerptsSaveEthnic Identification in a Complex Civilization: Who Are the Lue?Michael MoermanSociology1965T HE initial stimulus for this paper' was provided by my inability to give a simple answer to the simple question: "Whom did you study in the field?" The reasons for this inability concern the ways… Expand256PDFSaveEthnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Culture DifferenceM. FreedmanF. BarthSociology1970The seven brief essays appearing in this collection were, with a few others, originally written for a symposium held in Bergen in 1967. They bear the marks of a well-prepared and well-managed… Expand4,523SaveChristianity and the ShonaM. MurphreePhilosophy1969PREFACE V I. INTRODUCTION I 2. BUDJGA SOCIETY 15 3. BUDJGA TRADITIONAL RELIGION 30 4. BUDJGA PROTESTANTISM (METHODISM) 60 5. BUDJGA CATHOLICISM 80 6. THE BUDJGA VAPOSTORI 92 7. RELIGION IN A BUDJGA… Expand78SaveDebating about Identity in Malaysia : A Discourse Analysis( Mediating Identities in a Changing Malaysia)A. B. ShamsulSociology1996143SaveMIGRATION, WARFARE, AND CULTURE CONTACT IN BORNEO: A CRITIQUE OF ECOLOGICAL ANALYSISV. KingSociology, Political Science197615SaveThe Kerayan-Kalabit Highland of Central Northeast BorneoW. SchneebergerGeography1945141 ExcerptSaveThe Construction and Transformation of a Social Identity--Malayness and Bumiputeraness Re-examinedA. B. ShamsulSociology199638SaveContributions to the Ethnology of Central Northeast Borneo: Parts of Kalimantan, Sarawak and SabahW. SchneebergerGeography, History197917Save...123...Related PapersShowing 1 through 3 of 0 Related PapersTables16 Citations29 ReferencesRelated PapersStay Connected With Semantic ScholarSign UpWhat Is Semantic Scholar?Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI.Learn MoreAboutAbout UsMeet the TeamPublishersBlog (opens in a new tab)AI2 Careers (opens in a new tab)ProductProduct OverviewSemantic ReaderScholar's HubBeta ProgramRelease NotesAPIAPI OverviewAPI TutorialsAPI Documentation (opens in a new tab)API GalleryResearchPublicationsResearchersResearch CareersPrototypesResourcesHelpFAQLibrariansTutorialsContactProudly built by AI2 (opens in a new tab)Collaborators & Attributions •Terms of Service (opens in a new tab)•Privacy Policy (opens in a new tab)•API License AgreementThe Allen Institute for AI (opens in a new tab)By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our Privacy Policy (opens in a new tab), Terms of Service (opens in a new tab), and Dataset License (opens in a new tab)ACCEPT & CONTINUE

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