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Viking中文(简体)翻译:剑桥词典

Viking中文(简体)翻译:剑桥词典

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Viking 在英语-中文(简体)词典中的翻译

Vikingnoun [ C ] uk

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/ˈvaɪ.kɪŋ/ us

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a person belonging to a race of Scandinavian people who travelled by sea and attacked parts of northern and southern Europe between the 8th and the 11th centuries, often staying to live in places they travelled to

北欧海盗,维金人(斯堪的纳维亚人的一支,在8至11世纪间曾劫掠北欧和南欧)

(Viking在剑桥英语-中文(简体)词典的翻译 © Cambridge University Press)

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Viking的翻译

中文(繁体)

北歐海盜,維金人(斯堪的納維亞人的一支,在8至11世紀間曾劫掠北歐和南歐)…

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vikingo, vikinga…

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vignette

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Did Vikings Have Dreads? | Yes, But Not Always

Did Vikings Have Dreads? | Yes, But Not Always

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Start Here » Hair Care » Styling » Did Vikings Have Dreads? | Yes, But Not Always

Did Vikings Have Dreads? | Yes, But Not Always

Written by: Author Editorial Team  |  Reviewed by: Andrew Helling

Posted on Last updated: January 9, 2023

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Did Vikings Have Dreads?What Hairstyles Did the Vikings Have?Was Hairstyle Important in Viking Culture?Frequently Asked QuestionsSo, Did Vikings Have Dreads?

Vikings (víkingr in Old Norse) are well-known for being fierce Scandanavian warriors, but what were their haircare routines like? Did Vikings have dreads? We’ll show you all you need to know below.

Did Vikings Have Dreads?

Many Viking men and women had dreadlocks. The Vikings would often braid these dreads together to form thick plaits, though they could pull them into tight buns or knots.

However, not all Vikings had dreadlocks, and hairstyle was often associated with social class. If you’d like to adopt an authentic Viking hairstyle, you’ll want to know whether these people sported dreadlocks.

Understanding how Vikings wore their hair is also an excellent way to understand more about Viking culture and practices! Keep reading to discover what hairstyles the Vikings had and how hairstyle affected a Viking’s standing in their local community.

What Hairstyles Did the Vikings Have?

Fotokvadrat/Shutterstock

One of the best ways to determine whether Vikings had dreads is to explore the different types of hairstyles associated with Viking culture.

After all, familiarizing yourself with a culture’s most popular hairstyles is an excellent way to understand which hairdos were popular and which were rare. Generally, Vikings wore their hair in one of the following styles:

Reverse Mullet

Braids

Dreadlocks

Shaved

Reverse Mullet

Long hair was the norm for most Viking communities, but it could also be a nuisance. Long hair was likely to fall into your face running into combat, reducing your field of vision and potentially opening you up to attack.

Some Viking men preferred to wear their hair in a “reverse mullet” style. This means they kept the top portion long (typically braided) but cut the sides and back very short.

Braids

Most Vikings (men and women) wore their hair in braids. Doing so helped to keep hair out of the face while working or fighting. Still, Viking women tended to wear complex plaits made of braids, while men’s hairstyles were often more straightforward.

Dreadlocks

When you keep your hair long and braided most days, there’s a chance that it could naturally begin to form into dreadlocks. Dreads weren’t as common throughout Viking communities as other hairstyles.

But Viking warriors likely developed dreads while spending long bouts of time away from home. This development wasn’t probably considered problematic, as it helped keep a warrior’s hair out of their face.

Shaved

It’s possible that some Vikings shaved most of their hair off or went entirely bald. However, the evidence to support this idea is scant. 

One of the strongest indicators of occasional shaving or baldness comes from Leo the Deacon (a Greek historian), who wrote that the prince of Kievan Rus “…shaved his head completely, except for a lock of hair that hung down on one side.”

Still, because long hair was seen as an indicator of social status in many Viking villages, it’s unlikely that a shaved head was the preferred hairstyle for most Vikings.

Was Hairstyle Important in Viking Culture?

Fotokvadrat/Shutterstock

Though it’s typically associated with a specific culture, the term Viking actually refers to the act of sailing to a distant land and pillaging its resources. But contrary to popular belief, the Vikings weren’t solely comprised of warriors. 

While many of the men and women living in Scandinavia during the Viking Age did participate in Viking activities, many also stayed at home to tend to farming, construction, and child-rearing duties.

Depending on your role in the community, you likely wore a specific hairstyle to denote your status. 

How Viking Men Styled Their Hair

Viking men had the most options in terms of acceptable hairstyles. For example, they could wear long, unbraided hair, hair braided into long rope-like locks, or long on top but short along the back and sides.

Some Vikings even shaved their heads completely, though this practice was far less common than wearing their hair long. After all, short hair had some pretty negative associations in Viking culture.

How Viking Women Styled Their Hair

Viking women were just as integral to Viking raids are their male counterparts. As such, many hairstyles women wore in Viking communities were similar in style to masculine hairdos.

For example, many Viking women wore long hair, braiding their locks to form thick plaits that they could wrap or weave into tight buns. The primary difference between a Viking woman’s and a Viking man’s hair was the state of the sides and back. 

While it wasn’t uncommon for men to shear off most of the hair on the sides or back of their head, most Viking women kept all of their hair long, keeping it off their neck by braiding and knotting it at the top of the skull.

Read Next: Trending Viking Hairstyles for Women for 2024

How Viking Slaves Styles Their Hair

Sadly, slavery was a common practice throughout ancient civilizations. When the Vikings pillaged resources from villages, they typically gathered people from those areas to take home as slave workers (also called thralls).

These unfortunate individuals would have their hair shorn short to differentiate them from the long-haired Vikings. Consequently, having short hair was a sign of disgrace, as it identified you as an enslaved person with fewer rights and freedoms than the average community member.

Frequently Asked Questions

Selenit/Shutterstock

Below you will find some of the most frequently asked questions regarding Viking hairstyles and dreadlocks. If you have further questions, you might find the answer you’re looking for below!

What kind of hair did Vikings have?

The Vikings had diverse hair types, from thin blonde strands to thick black heads of hair. They wore their hair in many ways, though braids and dreads were likely the most popular hairstyles among Viking men and women.

What cultures had dreadlocks?

Several cultures throughout history have encouraged their people to wear dreadlocks. The Vikings are one group that wore dreadlocks, but ancient Egyptians, Pacific Island cultures, and several indigenous African tribes also commonly wear dreadlocks.

Who had dreadlocks first?

Modern dreadlocks may have originated in Ancient Egypt (as depicted on the Sarcophagus of Kawit) or Ancient Greece.

Still, there’s a good chance that many of the earliest people (including Neanderthals) had dreadlocks. After all, our ancient ancestors focused on survival, not keeping their hair tangle-free.

How do Viking dreads start?

Viking dreads start in much the same way as any other dreadlock. You can get them started by backcombing or hand-rolling your hair. Once the dreads are well-established, you can begin experimenting with different Viking braid patterns.

Did Celts have dreadlocks?

The Celts and Vikings shared several cultural similarities, including hairstyles. However, historical evidence supports the idea that Celts likely wore their hair long or in braids rather than having dreadlocks.

So, Did Vikings Have Dreads?

Some Vikings likely wore dreads, though most likely sported thick plaits of braids or the “reverse mullet” hairstyle. Long hair was common among the Vikings, as short hair was associated with enslavement.

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About the Author

The Editorial Team is comprised of several freelance hair enthusiasts that share a love of hairstyles, haircare, and hair products. Using both personal experience and third-party research, the team brings a unique perspective to their writing that might even feel like your hairstylist is talking to you themselves.

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Vikings - Wikipedia

Vikings - Wikipedia

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1Etymology

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1.1Original meaning and derivation of the word Viking

1.2Medieval usage

1.2.1English

1.2.2Scandinavia

1.2.3Other sources

1.3Modern usage

1.4Other names

2History

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2.1Viking Age

2.1.1Intermixing with the Slavs

2.2Expansion

2.2.1Motives

2.2.2Jomsborg

2.3End of the Viking Age

2.3.1Emergence of nation-states and monetary economies

2.3.2Assimilation into Christendom

3Culture

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3.1Literature and language

3.1.1Runestones

3.1.2Runic alphabet usage in modern times

3.2Burial sites

3.3Ships

3.4Social structure

3.4.1Status of women

3.4.2Appearance

3.4.3Farming and cuisine

3.4.4Sports

3.4.5Games and entertainment

3.5Cultural assimilation

4Weapons and warfare

5Trade

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5.1Goods

6Legacy

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6.1Medieval perceptions

6.2Post-medieval perceptions

6.2.1In 20th-century politics

6.3In modern popular culture

6.4Experimental archaeology

6.5Common misconceptions

6.5.1Horned helmets

6.5.2Barbarity

6.5.3Use of skulls as drinking vessels

7Genetic legacy

8See also

9Notes

10References

11Bibliography

12Further reading

13External links

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Vikings

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Norse seafarers, merchants and raiders

For the North Germanic ethnic group from which most Vikings originated, see Norsemen. For other uses, see Vikings (disambiguation).

Depiction of Vikings sailing a longship from c. 1100[1]

A Viking Age depiction from the Tjängvide image stone, on Gotland.[2]

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Vikings were seafaring people originally from Scandinavia (present-day Denmark, Norway, and Sweden),[3][4][5][6] who from the late 8th to the late 11th centuries raided, pirated, traded, and settled throughout parts of Europe.[7][8][9] They also voyaged as far as the Mediterranean, North Africa, the Middle East, Greenland, and Vinland (present-day Newfoundland in Canada, North America). In their countries of origin, and some of the countries they raided and settled in, this period is popularly known as the Viking Age, and the term "Viking" also commonly includes the inhabitants of the Scandinavian homelands as a whole. The Vikings had a profound impact on the early medieval history of Scandinavia, the British Isles, France, Estonia, and Kievan Rus'.[10]

Expert sailors and navigators of their characteristic longships, Vikings established Norse settlements and governments in the British Isles, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, Normandy, and the Baltic coast, as well as along the Dnieper and Volga trade routes across modern-day Russia, Belarus,[11] and Ukraine,[12] where they were also known as Varangians. The Normans, Norse-Gaels, Rus' people, Faroese, and Icelanders emerged from these Norse colonies. At one point, a group of Rus Vikings went so far south that, after briefly being bodyguards for the Byzantine emperor, they attacked the Byzantine city of Constantinople.[13] Vikings also voyaged to Iran[14][page needed] and Arabia.[15] They were the first Europeans to reach North America, briefly settling in Newfoundland (Vinland). While spreading Norse culture to foreign lands, they simultaneously brought home slaves, concubines, and foreign cultural influences to Scandinavia, influencing the genetic[16] and historical development of both. During the Viking Age, the Norse homelands were gradually consolidated from smaller kingdoms into three larger kingdoms: Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.

The Vikings spoke Old Norse and made inscriptions in runes. For most of the period, they followed the Old Norse religion, but later became Christians. The Vikings had their own laws, art, and architecture. Most Vikings were also farmers, fishermen, craftsmen, and traders. Popular conceptions of the Vikings often strongly differ from the complex, advanced civilisation of the Norsemen that emerges from archaeology and historical sources. A romanticised picture of Vikings as noble savages began to emerge in the 18th century; this developed and became widely propagated during the 19th-century Viking revival.[17][18] Perceived views of the Vikings as violent, piratical heathens or as intrepid adventurers owe much to conflicting varieties of the modern Viking myth that had taken shape by the early 20th century. Current popular representations of the Vikings are typically based on cultural clichés and stereotypes, complicating modern appreciation of the Viking legacy. These representations are rarely accurate—for example, there is no evidence that they wore horned helmets, a costume element that first appeared in the 19th century.

Etymology

The essential three elements of the word "Viking" are: the original meaning and derivation or etymology; its medieval usage; and its current modern-day usage. According to some authors, these three elements are often confused in popular and scholarly discussions. Also, the etymology of the word has been much debated by academics, with many origin theories being proposed.[19][20]

Original meaning and derivation of the word Viking

Runestone raised in memory of Gunnarr by Tóki the Viking.[21]

One theory suggests that the word's origin is from the Old English wicing and the Old Frisian wizing that are almost 300 years older, and probably derive from wic, related to the Latin vicus "village, habitation".[22] Another less popular theory is that víking came from the feminine vík, meaning "creek, inlet, small bay".[23]

It has been suggested that the word viking may be derived from the name of the historical Norwegian district of Víkin, meaning "a person from Víkin", but people from the Viken area were called víkverir, ('Vík dwellers'), not "Viking", in Old Norse manuscripts. The explanation could explain only the masculine grammatical gender (víkingr) and not the feminine (víking); the masculine is more easily derived from the feminine than the other way around.[24][25][26]

Another etymology that gained support in the early 21st century derives Viking from the same root as Old Norse vika, f. 'sea mile', originally meaning 'the distance between two shifts of rowers', from the root *weik or *wîk, as in the Proto-Germanic verb *wîkan, 'to recede'.[27][28][29][24] This is found in the early Nordic verb *wikan, 'to turn', similar to Old Icelandic víkja (ýkva, víkva) 'to move, to turn', with "well-attested nautical usages", according to Bernard Mees.[29] This theory is better attested linguistically, and the term most likely predates the use of the sail by the Germanic peoples of northwestern Europe, because the Old Frisian spelling Witsing or Wīsing shows that the word was pronounced with a palatal k and thus in all probability existed in North-Western Germanic before that palatalisation happened in the 5th century or before (in the western branch).[24][29][30]

The Stora Hammars I image stone, showing the saga of Hildr, under what may be the rite of blood eagle, and on the bottom a Viking ship

The Old Norse feminine víking (as in the phrase fara í víking) may originally have been a long-distance sea journey characterised by the shifting of rowers, and a víkingr (masculine gender) would originally have been a participant on such a sea journey. In that case, the idea behind it seems to be that the tired rower moves aside on the thwart when he is relieved by the rested rower. This implies that the word Viking was not originally connected to Scandinavian seafarers, but assumed this meaning when the Scandinavians began to dominate the seas.[27] Even the word vikingr did not necessarily possess negative overtones, nor was it always associated with violence, and only in the post-Viking age would negative overtones be attached to the word.[31]

Medieval usage

In the Middle Ages viking came to mean Scandinavian pirate or raider.[32][33][34]

English

The earliest reference to wicing in English sources is from the Épinal-Erfurt glossary which dates to around 700. The glossary's Latin translation for wicing is piraticum, or pirate in modern English. Whereas the first known attack by Viking raiders in England was at Lindisfarne about 93 years later.[35][36] In Old English, the word wicing appears in the Anglo-Saxon poem, Widsith, probably from the 9th century. The word was not regarded as a reference to nationality, with other terms such as Norþmenn (Northmen) and Dene (Danes) being used for that. In Asser's Latin work, The Life of King Alfred, the Danes are referred to as pagani (pagans); historian Janet Nelson asserts that pagani has become 'the Vikings' throughout the standard translation of this work, even though there is "clear evidence" that it was used as a synonym for Danes, while Eric Christiansen avers that it is a mistranslation made at the insistence of the publisher.[37] The word wicing does not occur in any preserved Middle English texts.

Scandinavia

The form occurs as a personal name on some Swedish runestones. The stone of Tóki víking (Sm 10) was raised in memory of a local man named Tóki who got the name Tóki víking (Toki the Viking), presumably because of his activities as a Viking.[38] The Gårdstånga Stone (DR 330) uses the phrase "Þeʀ drængaʀ waʀu wiða unesiʀ i wikingu" (These valiant men were widely renowned on viking raids),[39] referring to the stone's dedicatees as Vikings. The Västra Strö 1 Runestone has an inscription in memory of a Björn, who was killed when "on a viking raid".[40][41] In Sweden there is a locality known since the Middle Ages as Vikingstad. The Bro Stone (U 617) was raised in memory of Assur who is said to have protected the land from Vikings (Saʀ vaʀ vikinga vorðr með Gæiti).[42][43] There is little indication of any negative connotation in the term before the end of the Viking Age.

In eastern Europe, of which parts were ruled by a Norse elite, víkingr came to be perceived as a positive concept meaning "hero" in the Russian borrowed form vityaz' (витязь).[44]

Other sources

In the history of the archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen, Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontifi, written by Adam of Bremen and completed in the 1080s, the term generally referred to Scandinavian pirates or raiders.[45]

Modern usage

The word Viking was introduced into Modern English during the 18th-century Viking revival, at which point it acquired romanticised heroic overtones of "barbarian warrior" or noble savage.[46] During the 20th century, the meaning of the term was expanded to refer not only to seaborne raiders from Scandinavia and other places settled by them (like Iceland and the Faroe Islands), but also any member of the culture that produced the raiders during the period from the late 8th to the mid-11th centuries, or more loosely from about 700 to as late as about 1100. As an adjective, the word is used to refer to ideas, phenomena, or artefacts connected with those people and their cultural life, producing expressions like Viking age, Viking culture, Viking art, Viking religion, Viking ship and so on.

Other names

Europe in 814. Roslagen is located along the coast of the northern tip of the area marked "Swedes and Goths".

The Vikings were known as Ascomanni ("ashmen") by the Germans for the ash wood of their boats,[47] Dubgail and Finngail ( "dark and fair foreigners") by the Irish,[48] Lochlannaich ("people from the land of lakes") by the Gaels,[49] Dene (Dane) by the Anglo-Saxons[50] and Northmonn by the Frisians.[30]

The scholarly consensus[51] is that the Rus' people originated in what is currently coastal eastern Sweden around the eighth century and that their name has the same origin as Roslagen in Sweden (with the older name being Roden).[52][53][54] According to the prevalent theory, the name Rus', like the Proto-Finnic name for Sweden (*Ruotsi), is derived from an Old Norse term for "the men who row" (rods-) as rowing was the main method of navigating the rivers of Eastern Europe, and that it could be linked to the Swedish coastal area of Roslagen (Rus-law) or Roden, as it was known in earlier times.[55][56] The name Rus' would then have the same origin as the Finnish and Estonian names for Sweden: Ruotsi and Rootsi.[56][57]

The Slavs and the Byzantines also called them Varangians (Russian: варяги, from Old Norse Væringjar 'sworn men', from vàr- "confidence, vow of fealty", related to Old English wær "agreement, treaty, promise", Old High German wara "faithfulness"[58]). Scandinavian bodyguards of the Byzantine emperors were known as the Varangian Guard. The Rus' initially appeared in Serkland in the 9th century, travelling as merchants along the Volga trade route, selling furs, honey, and slaves, as well as luxury goods such as amber, Frankish swords, and walrus ivory. These goods were mostly exchanged for Arabian silver coins, called dirhams. Hoards of 9th century Baghdad-minted silver coins have been found in Sweden, particularly in Gotland.

During and after the Viking raid on Seville in 844 CE the Muslim chroniclers of al-Andalus referred to the Vikings as Magians (Arabic: al-Majus مجوس), conflating them with Zoroastrians from Persia.[59] When Ahmad ibn Fadlan encountered Vikings on the Volga, he referred to them as Rus.[60][61][62]

The Franks normally called them Northmen or Danes, while for the English they were generally known as Danes or heathen, and the Irish knew them as pagans or gentiles.[63]

Anglo-Scandinavian is an academic term referring to the people, and archaeological and historical periods during the 8th to 13th centuries, in which there was migration to—and occupation of—the British Isles by Scandinavian peoples generally known in English as Vikings. It is used in distinction from Anglo-Saxon. Similar terms exist for other areas, such as Hiberno-Norse for Ireland and Scotland.

History

See also: Scandinavian prehistory, Battle Axe culture, and Nordic Bronze Age

Viking Age

Main article: Viking Age

Sea-faring Norsemen depicted invading England. Illuminated illustration from the 12th-century Miscellany on the Life of St. Edmund (Pierpont Morgan Library)

The Viking Age in Scandinavian history is taken to have been the period from the earliest recorded raids by Norsemen in 793 until the Norman conquest of England in 1066.[64] Vikings used the Norwegian Sea and Baltic Sea for sea routes to the south.

The Normans were descendants of those Vikings who had been given feudal overlordship of areas in northern France, namely the Duchy of Normandy, in the 10th century. In that respect, descendants of the Vikings continued to have an influence in northern Europe. Likewise, King Harold Godwinson, the last Anglo-Saxon king of England, had Danish ancestors. Two Vikings even ascended to the throne of England, with Sweyn Forkbeard claiming the English throne in 1013 until 1014 and his son Cnut the Great being king of England between 1016 and 1035.[65][66][67][68][69]

Geographically, the Viking Age covered Scandinavian lands (modern Denmark, Norway and Sweden), as well as territories under North Germanic dominance, mainly the Danelaw, including Scandinavian York, the administrative centre of the remains of the Kingdom of Northumbria,[70] parts of Mercia, and East Anglia.[71] Viking navigators opened the road to new lands to the north, west and east, resulting in the foundation of independent settlements in the Shetland, Orkney, and Faroe Islands; Iceland; Greenland;[72] and L'Anse aux Meadows, a short-lived settlement in Newfoundland, circa 1000.[73] The Greenland settlement was established around 980, during the Medieval Warm Period, and its demise by the mid-15th century may have been partly due to climate change.[74] The Viking Rurik dynasty took control of territories in Slavic and Finnic-dominated areas of Eastern Europe; they annexed Kiev in 882 to serve as the capital of the Kievan Rus'.[75]

As early as 839, when Swedish emissaries are first known to have visited Byzantium, Scandinavians served as mercenaries in the service of the Byzantine Empire.[76] In the late 10th century, a new unit of the imperial bodyguard formed. Traditionally containing large numbers of Scandinavians, it was known as the Varangian Guard. The word Varangian may have originated in Old Norse, but in Slavic and Greek it could refer either to Scandinavians or Franks. In these years, Swedish men left to enlist in the Byzantine Varangian Guard in such numbers that a medieval Swedish law, the Västgötalagen, from Västergötland declared no-one could inherit while staying in "Greece"—the then Scandinavian term for the Byzantine Empire—to stop the emigration,[77] especially as two other European courts simultaneously also recruited Scandinavians:[78] Kievan Rus' c. 980–1060 and London 1018–1066 (the Þingalið).[78]

There is archaeological evidence that Vikings reached Baghdad, the centre of the Islamic Empire.[79] The Norse regularly plied the Volga with their trade goods: furs, tusks, seal fat for boat sealant, and slaves. Important trading ports during the period include Birka, Hedeby, Kaupang, Jorvik, Staraya Ladoga, Novgorod, and Kiev.

Scandinavian Norsemen explored Europe by its seas and rivers for trade, raids, colonisation, and conquest. In this period, voyaging from their homelands in Denmark, Norway and Sweden the Norsemen settled in the present-day Faroe Islands, Iceland, Norse Greenland, Newfoundland, the Netherlands, Germany, Normandy, Italy, Scotland, England, Wales, Ireland, the Isle of Man, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,[80] Ukraine, Russia and Turkey, as well as initiating the consolidation that resulted in the formation of the present-day Scandinavian countries.

In the Viking Age, the present day nations of Norway, Sweden and Denmark did not exist, but the peoples who lived in what is now those countries were largely homogeneous and similar in culture and language, although somewhat distinct geographically. The names of Scandinavian kings are reliably known for only the later part of the Viking Age. After the end of the Viking Age, the separate kingdoms gradually acquired distinct identities as nations, which went hand-in-hand with their Christianisation. Thus, the end of the Viking Age for the Scandinavians also marks the start of their relatively brief Middle Ages.

Intermixing with the Slavs

Slavic and Viking tribes were "closely linked, fighting one another, intermixing and trading".[81][82][83] In the Middle Ages, goods were transferred from Slavic areas to Scandinavia, and Denmark could be considered "a melting pot of Slavic and Scandinavian elements".[81] Leszek Gardeła, of the Department of Scandinavian Languages and Literatures at the University of Bonn, posits that the presence of Slavs in Scandinavia is "more significant than previously thought",[81] while Mats Roslund states that "the Slavs and their interaction with Scandinavia have not been adequately investigated".[84]

A 10th-century grave of a warrior-woman in Denmark was long thought to belong to a Viking. However, new analyses suggest that the woman may have been a Slav from present-day Poland.[81] The first king of the Swedes, Eric, was married to Gunhild, of the Polish House of Piast.[85] Likewise, his son, Olof, fell in love with Edla, a Slavic woman, and took her as his frilla (concubine).[86] They had a son and a daughter: Emund the Old, King of Sweden, and Astrid, Queen of Norway. Cnut the Great, King of Denmark, England and Norway, was the son of a daughter of Mieszko I of Poland,[87] possibly the former Polish queen of Sweden, wife of Eric.

Expansion

Main article: Viking expansion

Viking expeditions (blue line): depicting the immense breadth of their voyages through most of Europe, the Mediterranean Sea, Northern Africa, Asia Minor, the Arctic, and North America. Lower Normandy, depicted as a "Viking territory in 911", was not part of the lands granted by the king of the Franks to Rollo in 911, but Upper Normandy.

Guests from Overseas (1901) by Nicholas Roerich, depicting a Varangian raid

Colonisation of Iceland by Norwegian Vikings began in the 9th century. The first source mentioning Iceland and Greenland is a papal letter from 1053. Twenty years later, they appear in the Gesta of Adam of Bremen. It was not until after 1130, when the islands had become Christianised, that accounts of the history of the islands were written from the point of view of the inhabitants in sagas and chronicles.[88] The Vikings explored the northern islands and coasts of the North Atlantic, ventured south to North Africa, east to Kievan Rus (now – Ukraine, Belarus), Constantinople, and the Middle East.[89]

They raided and pillaged, traded, acted as mercenaries and settled colonies over a wide area.[90] Early Vikings probably returned home after their raids. Later in their history, they began to settle in other lands.[91] Vikings under Leif Erikson, heir to Erik the Red, reached North America and set up short-lived settlements in present-day L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, Canada. This expansion occurred during the Medieval Warm Period.[92]

Viking expansion into continental Europe was limited. Their realm was bordered by powerful tribes to the south. Early on, it was the Saxons who occupied Old Saxony, located in what is now Northern Germany. The Saxons were a fierce and powerful people and were often in conflict with the Vikings. To counter the Saxon aggression and solidify their own presence, the Danes constructed the huge defence fortification of Danevirke in and around Hedeby.[93]

The Vikings witnessed the violent subduing of the Saxons by Charlemagne, in the thirty-year Saxon Wars of 772–804. The Saxon defeat resulted in their forced christening and the absorption of Old Saxony into the Carolingian Empire. Fear of the Franks led the Vikings to further expand Danevirke,[93] and the defence constructions remained in use throughout the Viking Age and even up until 1864.[94]

The southern coast of the Baltic Sea was ruled by the Obotrites, a federation of Slavic tribes loyal to the Carolingians and later the Frankish empire. The Vikings—led by King Gudfred—destroyed the Obotrite city of Reric on the southern Baltic coast in 808 AD and transferred the merchants and traders to Hedeby.[95] This secured Viking supremacy in the Baltic Sea, which continued throughout the Viking Age.

Because of the expansion of the Vikings across Europe, a comparison of DNA and archeology undertaken by scientists at the University of Cambridge and University of Copenhagen suggested that the term "Viking" may have evolved to become "a job description, not a matter of heredity", at least in some Viking bands.[96]

Motives

The motives driving the Viking expansion are a topic of much debate. The concept that Vikings may have originally started sailing and raiding due to a need to seek out women from foreign lands was expressed in the 11th century by historian Dudo of Saint-Quentin in his semi-imaginary History of The Normans.[97] [98][99] As observed by Adam of Bremen, rich and powerful Viking men tended to have many wives and concubines;[100] and these polygynous relationships may have led to a shortage of women available to the Viking male. Consequently, the average Viking man may have felt compelled to seek wealth and power to have the means to acquire suitable women.[101] Several centuries after Dudo's observations, scholars revived this idea, and over time it became a cliché among scholars of the Viking Age.[102] Viking men would often buy or capture women and make them into their wives or concubines;[103][104] such polygynous marriages increase male-male competition in society because they create a pool of unmarried men who are willing to engage in risky status-elevating and sex-seeking behaviors.[105][106] The Annals of Ulster states that in 821 the Vikings plundered an Irish village and "carried off a great number of women into captivity".[107]

One common theory posits that Charlemagne "used force and terror to Christianise all pagans", leading to baptism, conversion or execution, and as a result, Vikings and other pagans resisted and wanted revenge.[108][109][110][111][112] Professor Rudolf Simek states that "it is not a coincidence if the early Viking activity occurred during the reign of Charlemagne".[108][113] The ascendance of Christianity in Scandinavia led to serious conflict, dividing Norway for almost a century. However, this time period did not commence until the 10th century. Norway was never subject to aggression by Charlemagne and the period of strife was due to successive Norwegian kings embracing Christianity after encountering it overseas.[114]

Viking-era towns of Scandinavia

Another explanation is that the Vikings exploited a moment of weakness in the surrounding regions. Contrary to Simek's assertion, Viking raids occurred sporadically long before the reign of Charlemagne; but exploded in frequency and size after his death, when his empire fragmented into multiple much weaker entities.[115] England suffered from internal divisions and was a relatively easy prey given the proximity of many towns to the sea or to navigable rivers. Lack of organised naval opposition throughout Western Europe allowed Viking ships to travel freely, raiding or trading as opportunity permitted. The decline in the profitability of old trade routes could also have played a role. Trade between Western Europe and the rest of Eurasia suffered a severe blow when the Western Roman Empire fell in the 5th century.[116] The expansion of Islam in the 7th century had also affected trade with Western Europe.[117]

Raids in Europe, including raids and settlements from Scandinavia, were not unprecedented and had occurred long before the Vikings arrived. The Jutes invaded the British Isles three centuries earlier, from Jutland during the Age of Migrations, before the Danes settled there. The Saxons and the Angles did the same, embarking from mainland Europe. The Viking raids were, however, the first to be documented by eyewitnesses, and they were much larger in scale and frequency than in previous times.[115]

Vikings themselves were expanding; although their motives are unclear, historians believe that scarce resources or a lack of mating opportunities were a factor.[118]

The "Highway of Slaves" was a term for a route that the Vikings found to have a direct pathway from Scandinavia to Constantinople and Baghdad while traveling on the Baltic Sea. With the advancements of their ships during the 9th century, the Vikings were able to sail to Kievan Rus and some northern parts of Europe.[119]

Jomsborg

Curmsun Disc – obverse, Jomsborg, 980s

Jomsborg was a semi-legendary Viking stronghold at the southern coast of the Baltic Sea (medieval Wendland, modern Pomerania), that existed between the 960s and 1043. Its inhabitants were known as Jomsvikings. Jomsborg's exact location, or its existence, has not yet been established, though it is often maintained that Jomsborg was somewhere on the islands of the Oder estuary.[120]

End of the Viking Age

While the Vikings were active beyond their Scandinavian homelands, Scandinavia was itself experiencing new influences and undergoing a variety of cultural changes.[121]

Emergence of nation-states and monetary economies

By the late 11th century, royal dynasties were legitimised by the Catholic Church (which had had little influence in Scandinavia 300 years earlier) which were asserting their power with increasing authority and ambition, with the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden taking shape. Towns appeared that functioned as secular and ecclesiastical administrative centres and market sites, and monetary economies began to emerge based on English and German models.[122] By this time the influx of Islamic silver from the East had been absent for more than a century, and the flow of English silver had come to an end in the mid-11th century.[123]

Assimilation into Christendom

Christianity had taken root in Denmark and Norway with the establishment of dioceses in the 11th century, and the new religion was beginning to organise and assert itself more effectively in Sweden. Foreign churchmen and native elites were energetic in furthering the interests of Christianity, which was now no longer operating only on a missionary footing, and old ideologies and lifestyles were transforming. By 1103, the first archbishopric was founded in Scandinavia, at Lund, Scania, then part of Denmark.

The assimilation of the nascent Scandinavian kingdoms into the cultural mainstream of European Christendom altered the aspirations of Scandinavian rulers and of Scandinavians able to travel overseas, and changed their relations with their neighbours.

One of the primary sources of profit for the Vikings had been slave-taking from other European peoples. The medieval Church held that Christians should not own fellow Christians as slaves, so chattel slavery diminished as a practice throughout northern Europe. This took much of the economic incentive out of raiding, though sporadic slaving activity continued into the 11th century. Scandinavian predation in Christian lands around the North and Irish Seas diminished markedly.

The kings of Norway continued to assert power in parts of northern Britain and Ireland, and raids continued into the 12th century, but the military ambitions of Scandinavian rulers were now directed toward new paths. In 1107, Sigurd I of Norway sailed for the eastern Mediterranean with Norwegian crusaders to fight for the newly established Kingdom of Jerusalem; the kings of Denmark and Sweden participated actively in the Baltic Crusades of the 12th and 13th centuries.[124]

Culture

A variety of sources illuminate the culture, activities, and beliefs of the Vikings. Although they were generally a non-literate culture that produced no literary legacy, they had an alphabet and described themselves and their world on runestones. Most contemporary literary and written sources on the Vikings come from other cultures that were in contact with them.[125] Since the mid-20th century, archaeological findings have built a more complete and balanced picture of the lives of the Vikings.[126][127] The archaeological record is particularly rich and varied, providing knowledge of their rural and urban settlement, crafts and production, ships and military equipment, trading networks, as well as their pagan and Christian religious artefacts and practices.

Literature and language

See also: Old Norse and Saga

One of the few surviving manuscript leaves from the Heimskringla Sagas, written by Snorri Sturluson c. 1230. The leaf tells of King Ólafur.

The most important primary sources on the Vikings are contemporary texts from Scandinavia and regions where the Vikings were active.[128] Writing in Latin letters was introduced to Scandinavia with Christianity, so there are few native documentary sources from Scandinavia before the late 11th and early 12th centuries.[129] The Scandinavians did write inscriptions in runes, but these were usually very short and formulaic. Most contemporary documentary sources consist of texts written in Christian and Islamic communities outside Scandinavia, often by authors who had been negatively affected by Viking activity.

Later writings on the Vikings and the Viking Age can also be important for understanding them and their culture, although they need to be treated cautiously. After the consolidation of the church and the assimilation of Scandinavia and its colonies into mainstream medieval Christian culture in the 11th and 12th centuries, native written sources began to appear in Latin and Old Norse. In the Viking colony of Iceland, extraordinary vernacular literature blossomed in the 12th through 14th centuries, and many traditions connected with the Viking Age were written down for the first time in the Icelandic sagas. A literal interpretation of these medieval prose narratives about the Vikings and the Scandinavian past is doubtful, but many specific elements remain worthy of consideration, such as the great quantity of skaldic poetry attributed to court poets of the 10th and 11th centuries, the exposed family trees, the self-images, and the ethical values that are contained in these literary writings.

Indirectly, the Vikings have also left a window open onto their language, culture and activities, through many Old Norse place names and words found in their former sphere of influence. Some of these place names and words are still in direct use today, almost unchanged, and shed light on where they settled and what specific places meant to them. Examples include place names like Egilsay (from Eigils ey meaning Eigil's Island), Ormskirk (from Ormr kirkja meaning Orms Church or Church of the Worm), Meols (from merl meaning Sand Dunes), Snaefell (Snow Fell), Ravenscar (Ravens Rock), Vinland (Land of Wine or Land of Winberry), Kaupanger (Market Harbour), Tórshavn (Thor's Harbour), and the religious centre of Odense, meaning a place where Odin was worshipped. Viking influence is also evident in concepts like the present-day parliamentary body of the Tynwald on the Isle of Man.

Many common words in everyday English language stem from the Old Norse of the Vikings and give an opportunity to understand their interactions with the people and cultures of the British Isles.[130] In the Northern Isles of Shetland and Orkney, Old Norse completely replaced the local languages and over time evolved into the now extinct Norn language. Some modern words and names only emerge and contribute to our understanding after a more intense research of linguistic sources from medieval or later records, such as York (Horse Bay), Swansea (Sveinn's Isle) or some of the place names in Normandy like Tocqueville (Toki's farm).[131]

Linguistic and etymological studies continue to provide a vital source of information on the Viking culture, their social structure and history and how they interacted with the people and cultures they met, traded, attacked or lived with in overseas settlements.[132][133] A lot of Old Norse connections are evident in the modern-day languages of Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Faroese and Icelandic.[134] Old Norse did not exert any great influence on the Slavic languages in the Viking settlements of Eastern Europe. It has been speculated that the reason for this was the great differences between the two languages, combined with the Rus Vikings' more peaceful businesses in these areas, and the fact that they were outnumbered. The Norse named some of the rapids on the Dnieper, but this can hardly be seen from modern names.[135][136]

Runestones

Main article: Runestone

The Lingsberg Runestone in SwedenRunic inscriptions of the larger of the Jelling Stones in DenmarkTwo types of Norse runestones from the Viking Age

The Norse of the Viking Age could read and write and used a non-standardised alphabet, called runor, built upon sound values. While there are few remains of runic writing on paper from the Viking era, thousands of stones with runic inscriptions have been found where Vikings lived. They are usually in memory of the dead, though not necessarily placed at graves. The use of runor survived into the 15th century, used in parallel with the Latin alphabet.

The runestones are unevenly distributed in Scandinavia: Denmark has 250 runestones, Norway has 50 while Iceland has none.[137] Sweden has as many as between 1,700[137] and 2,500[138] depending on the definition. The Swedish district of Uppland has the highest concentration with as many as 1,196 inscriptions in stone, whereas Södermanland is second with 391.[139][140]

The majority of runic inscriptions from the Viking period are found in Sweden. Many runestones in Scandinavia record the names of participants in Viking expeditions, such as the Kjula runestone that tells of extensive warfare in Western Europe and the Turinge Runestone, which tells of a war band in Eastern Europe.

Other runestones mention men who died on Viking expeditions. Among them include the England runestones (Swedish: Englandsstenarna) which is a group of about 30 runestones in Sweden which refer to Viking Age voyages to England. They constitute one of the largest groups of runestones that mention voyages to other countries, and they are comparable in number only to the approximately 30 Greece Runestones[141] and the 26 Ingvar Runestones, the latter referring to a Viking expedition to the Middle East.[142] They were engraved in Old Norse with the Younger Futhark.[143] Piraeus Lion drawing of curved lindworm. The runes on the lion tell of Viking warriors, most likely Varangians, mercenaries in the service of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Emperor.

The Jelling stones date from between 960 and 985. The older, smaller stone was raised by King Gorm the Old, the last pagan king of Denmark, as a memorial honouring Queen Thyre.[144] The larger stone was raised by his son, Harald Bluetooth, to celebrate the conquest of Denmark and Norway and the conversion of the Danes to Christianity. It has three sides: one with an animal image; one with an image of the crucified Jesus Christ; and a third bearing the following inscription:

King Haraldr ordered this monument made in memory of Gormr, his father, and in memory of Thyrvé, his mother; that Haraldr who won for himself all of Denmark and Norway and made the Danes Christian.[145]

Runestones attest to voyages to locations such as Bath,[146] Greece (how the Vikings referred to the Byzantium territories generally),[147] Khwaresm,[148] Jerusalem,[149] Italy (as Langobardland),[150] Serkland (i.e. the Muslim world),[151][152] England[153] (including London[154]), and various places in Eastern Europe. Viking Age inscriptions have also been discovered on the Manx runestones on the Isle of Man.

Runic alphabet usage in modern times

The last known people to use the Runic alphabet were an isolated group of people known as the Elfdalians, that lived in the locality of Älvdalen in the Swedish province of Dalarna. They spoke the language of Elfdalian, the language unique to Älvdalen. The Elfdalian language differentiates itself from the other Scandinavian languages as it evolved much closer to Old Norse. The people of Älvdalen stopped using runes as late as the 1920s. Usage of runes therefore survived longer in Älvdalen than anywhere else in the world.[155] The last known record of the Elfdalian Runes is from 1929; they are a variant of the Dalecarlian runes, runic inscriptions that were also found in Dalarna.

Traditionally regarded as a Swedish dialect,[156] but by several criteria closer related to West Scandinavian dialects,[157] Elfdalian is a separate language by the standard of mutual intelligibility.[158][159][160] Although there is no mutual intelligibility, due to schools and public administration in Älvdalen being conducted in Swedish, native speakers are bilingual and speak Swedish at a native level. Residents in the area who speak only Swedish as their sole native language, neither speaking nor understanding Elfdalian, are also common. Älvdalen can be said to have had its own alphabet during the 17th and 18th century. Today there are about 2,000–3,000 native speakers of Elfdalian.

Burial sites

See also: Norse funeral and Ship burial

Burial mounds (Gamla Uppsala)Funerary stone settings (Lindholm Høje)Examples of Viking burial mounds and stone set graves, collectively known as tumuli

There are numerous burial sites associated with Vikings throughout Europe and their sphere of influence—in Scandinavia, the British Isles, Ireland, Greenland, Iceland, Faeroe Islands, Germany, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, Russia, etc. The burial practices of the Vikings were quite varied, from dug graves in the ground, to tumuli, sometimes including so-called ship burials.

According to written sources, most of the funerals took place at sea. Funerals involved either burial or cremation, depending on local customs. In the area that is now Sweden, cremations were predominant; in Denmark burial was more common; and in Norway both were common.[161] Viking barrows are one of the primary sources of evidence for circumstances in the Viking Age.[162] The items buried with the dead give some indication as to what was considered important to possess in the afterlife.[163] It is unknown what mortuary services were given to dead children by the Vikings.[164] Some of the most important burial sites for understanding the Vikings include:

Norway: Oseberg; Gokstad; Borrehaugene.

Sweden: Gettlinge gravfält; the cemeteries of Birka, a World Heritage Site;[165] Valsgärde; Gamla Uppsala; Hulterstad gravfält, near Alby; Hulterstad, Öland, Gotland.

Denmark: Jelling, a World Heritage Site; Lindholm Høje; Ladby ship; Mammen chamber tomb and hoard.

Estonia: Salme ships – The largest and earliest Viking ship burial ground ever uncovered.

Scotland: Port an Eilean Mhòir ship burial; Scar boat burial, Orkney.

Faroe Islands: Hov.

Iceland: Mosfellsbær in Capital Region;[166][167] the boat burial in Vatnsdalur, Austur-Húnavatnssýsla.[161][168][169]

Greenland: Brattahlíð.[170]

Germany: Hedeby.

Latvia: Grobiņa.

Ukraine: the Black Grave.

Russia: Gnezdovo, Staraya Ladoga.

Ships

Main article: Viking ships

Prow of the Oseberg ship, at Oslo Museum

There have been several archaeological finds of Viking ships of all sizes, providing knowledge of the craftsmanship that went into building them. There were many types of Viking ships, built for various uses; the best-known type is probably the longship.[171] Longships were intended for warfare and exploration, designed for speed and agility, and were equipped with oars to complement the sail, making navigation possible independently of the wind. The longship had a long, narrow hull and shallow draught to facilitate landings and troop deployments in shallow water. Longships were used extensively by the Leidang, the Scandinavian defence fleets. The longship allowed the Norse to go Viking, which might explain why this type of ship has become almost synonymous with the concept of Vikings.[172][173]

The Vikings built many unique types of watercraft, often used for more peaceful tasks. The knarr was a dedicated merchant vessel designed to carry cargo in bulk. It had a broader hull, a deeper draught, and a small number of oars (used primarily to manoeuvre in harbours and similar situations). One Viking innovation was the 'beitass', a spar mounted to the sail that allowed their ships to sail effectively against the wind.[174] It was common for seafaring Viking ships to tow or carry a smaller boat to transfer crew and cargo from the ship to shore.

A reconstructed longshipA model of the knarr ship typeTwo typical viking ships

Ships were an integral part of Viking culture. They facilitated everyday transportation across seas and waterways, exploration of new lands, raids, conquests, and trade with neighbouring cultures. They also held a major religious importance. People with high status were sometimes buried in a ship along with animal sacrifices, weapons, provisions and other items, as evidenced by the buried vessels at Gokstad and Oseberg in Norway[175] and the excavated ship burial at Ladby in Denmark. Ship burials were also practised by Vikings overseas, as evidenced by the excavations of the Salme ships on the Estonian island of Saaremaa.[176]

Well-preserved remains of five Viking ships were excavated from Roskilde Fjord in the late 1960s, representing both the longship and the knarr. The ships were scuttled there in the 11th century to block a navigation channel and thus protect Roskilde, then the Danish capital, from a seaborne assault. The remains of these ships are on display at the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde.

In 2019, archaeologists uncovered two Viking boat graves in Gamla Uppsala. They also discovered that one of the boats still holds the remains of a man, a dog, and a horse, along with other items.[177] This has shed light on the death rituals of Viking communities in the region.

Social structure

A large reconstructed chieftains longhouse at Lofotr Viking Museum, Norway

Reconstructed town houses from Haithabu (now in Germany)

Viking society was divided into the three socio-economic classes: thralls, karls and jarls. This is described vividly in the Eddic poem of Rígsþula, which also explains that it was the god Ríg—father of mankind also known as Heimdallr—who created the three classes. Archaeology has confirmed this social structure.[178]

Thralls were the lowest ranking class and were slaves. Slaves comprised as much as a quarter of the population.[179] Slavery was vital to Viking society – for everyday chores and large-scale construction, and also for trading and for the economy. Thralls were servants and workers on the farms and in larger households of the karls and jarls, and they were used for constructing fortifications, ramps, canals, mounds, roads and similar projects built by hard labour. According to the Rígsþula, thralls were despised and looked down upon.[180] New thralls were supplied by either the sons and daughters of thralls, or were captured abroad by the Vikings on their raids in Europe. The thralls were brought back to Scandinavia by boat, used on location or in newer settlements to build needed structures, or sold, often to the Arabs in exchange for silver. Other names for thrall were træl and ty.

Karls were free peasants. They owned farms, land and cattle, and engaged in chores like ploughing the fields, milking the cows, and building houses and wagons, but used thralls to make ends meet. Other names for karls were bonde or simply free men. Similar classes were churls and huskarls.

The jarls were the aristocracy of Viking society. They were wealthy and owned large estates with huge longhouses, horses and many thralls. The thralls did most of the daily chores, while the jarls carried out administration, politics, hunting, and sports – they also visited other jarls or went abroad on expeditions. When a jarl died and was buried, his household thralls were sometimes sacrificially killed and buried next to him, as many excavations have revealed.[181]

In daily life, there were many intermediate positions in the overall social structure and it appears that there was some social mobility between them. These details are unclear, but titles and positions like hauldr, thegn, and landmand, show mobility between the karls and the jarls.

Other social structures included the communities of félag in both the civil and the military spheres, to which its members (called félagi) were obliged. A félag could be centred around certain trades, a common ownership of a sea vessel or a military obligation under a specific leader. Members of the latter were referred to as drenge, one of the words for warrior. There were also official communities within towns and villages, the overall defence, religion, the legal system and the Things.

Status of women

Typical jewellery worn by women of the karls and jarls: ornamented silver brooches, coloured glass-beads and amulets

Like elsewhere in medieval Europe, most women in Viking society were subordinate to their husbands and fathers and had little political power.[182][183] However, written sources portray free Viking women as having independence and rights. Viking women generally appear to have had more freedom than women elsewhere,[183] as illustrated in the Icelandic Grágás and the Norwegian Frostating laws and Gulating laws.[184]

Most free Viking women were housewives, and a woman's standing in society was linked to that of her husband.[183] Marriage gave a woman a degree of economic security and social standing encapsulated in the title húsfreyja (lady of the house). Norse laws assert the housewife's authority over the 'indoor household'. She had the important roles of managing the farm's resources, conducting business, as well as child-rearing, although some of this would be shared with her husband.[185]

After the age of 20, an unmarried woman, referred to as maer and mey, reached legal majority and had the right to decide her place of residence and was regarded as her own person before the law.[184] An exception to her independence was the right to choose a husband, as marriages were normally arranged by the family.[186] The groom would pay a bride-price (mundr) to the bride's family, and the bride brought assets into the marriage, as a dowry.[185] A married woman could divorce her husband and remarry.[183][187]

Concubinage was also part of Viking society, whereby a woman could live with a man and have children with him without marrying; such a woman was called a frilla.[187] Usually she would be the mistress of a wealthy and powerful man who also had a wife.[182] The wife had authority over the mistresses if they lived in her household.[183] Through her relationship to a man of higher social standing, a concubine and her family could advance socially; although her position was less secure than that of a wife.[182] There was little distinction made between children born inside or outside marriage: both had the right to inherit property from their parents, and there were no "legitimate" or "illegitimate" children.[187] However, children born in wedlock had more inheritance rights than those born out of wedlock.[185]

A woman had the right to inherit part of her husband's property upon his death,[185] and widows enjoyed the same independent status as unmarried women.[187] The paternal aunt, paternal niece and paternal granddaughter, referred to as odalkvinna, all had the right to inherit property from a deceased man.[184] A woman with no husband, sons or male relatives could inherit not only property but also the position as head of the family when her father or brother died. Such a woman was referred to as Baugrygr, and she exercised all the rights afforded to the head of a family clan, until she married, by which her rights were transferred to her new husband.[184]

Women had religious authority and were active as priestesses (gydja) and oracles (sejdkvinna).[188] They were active within art as poets (skalder)[188] and rune masters, and as merchants and medicine women.[188] There may also have been female entrepreneurs, who worked in textile production.[183] Women may also have been active within military offices: the tales about shieldmaidens are unconfirmed, but some archaeological finds such as the Birka female Viking warrior may indicate that at least some women in military authority existed.[189]

These liberties of the Viking women gradually disappeared after the introduction of Christianity,[190] and from the late 13th century, they are no longer mentioned.[184]

Examination of Viking Age burials suggests that women lived longer, and nearly all well past the age of 35, as compared to earlier times. Female graves from before the Viking Age in Scandinavia hold a proportionally large number of remains from women aged 20 to 35, presumably due to complications of childbirth.[191]

Examination of skeletal remains also allows the relative health and nutritional status of boys and girls in the past to be reconstructed, using anthropometric techniques. Burials from Scandinavia and other European countries suggest that, in comparison with other societies at the time, female equality was remarkably high in rural Scandinavia. Females in the rural periphery of Nordic countries during the Viking period and the later Middle Ages had relatively high status, resulting in substantial nutritional and health resources being allocated to girls, enabling them to grow stronger and healthier.[192]

Appearance

Reconstructed Vikings costume on display at Archaeological Museum in Stavanger, Norway

Scandinavian Vikings were similar in appearance to modern Scandinavians: "their skin was fair and the hair color varied between blond, dark and reddish". Genetic studies suggest that people were mostly blond in what is now eastern Sweden, while red hair was mostly found in western Scandinavia.[193] Most Viking men had shoulder-length hair and beards, and slaves (thralls) were usually the only men with short hair.[194] The length varied according to personal preference and occupation. Men involved in warfare, for example, may have had slightly shorter hair and beards for practical reasons. Men in some regions bleached their hair a golden saffron colour.[194] Females also had long hair, with girls often wearing it loose or braided, and married women often wearing it in a bun.[194] The average height is estimated to have been 1.70 m (5 ft 7 in) for men and 1.55 m (5 ft 1 in) for women.[193]

The three classes were easily recognisable by their appearance. Men and women of the Jarls were well groomed with neat hairstyles and expressed their wealth and status by wearing expensive clothes (often silk) and well-crafted jewellery like brooches, belt buckles, necklaces and arm rings. Almost all of the jewellery was crafted in specific designs unique to the Norse (see Viking art). Finger rings were seldom used and earrings were not used at all, as they were seen as a Slavic phenomenon. Most karls expressed similar tastes and hygiene, but in a more relaxed and inexpensive way.[178][195]

Archaeological finds from Scandinavia and Viking settlements in the British Isles support the idea of the well-groomed and hygienic Viking. Burial with grave goods was a common practice in the Scandinavian world, through the Viking Age and well past the Christianisation of the Norse peoples.[196] Within these burial sites and homesteads, combs, often made from antler, are a common find.[197] [198] The manufacturing of such antler combs was common, as at the Viking settlement at Dublin hundreds of examples of combs from the tenth-century have survived, suggesting that grooming was a common practice. The manufacture of such combs was also widespread throughout the Viking world, as examples of similar combs have been found at Viking settlements in Ireland,[199] England,[200] and Scotland.[201] The combs share a common visual appearance as well, with the extant examples often decorated with linear, interlacing, and geometric motifs, or other forms of ornamentation depending on the comb's period and type, but stylistically similar to Viking Age art.[202] All levels of Viking age society appear to have groomed their hair, as hair combs have been found in common graves as well as in aristocratic ones.[203]

Farming and cuisine

The sagas tell about the diet and cuisine of the Vikings,[204] but first-hand evidence, like cesspits, kitchen middens and garbage dumps have proved to be of great value and importance. Undigested remains of plants from cesspits at Coppergate in York have provided much information in this respect. Overall, archaeo-botanical investigations have been undertaken increasingly in recent decades, as a collaboration between archaeologists and palaeoethno-botanists. This new approach sheds light on the agricultural and horticultural practices of the Vikings and their cuisine.[205]

Pot of soapstone, partly reconstructed, Viking Age (From Birka, Sweden)

The combined information from various sources suggests a diverse cuisine and ingredients. Meat products of all kinds, such as cured, smoked and whey-preserved meat,[206] sausages, and boiled or fried fresh meat cuts, were prepared and consumed.[207] There were plenty of seafood, bread, porridges, dairy products, vegetables, fruits, berries and nuts. Alcoholic drinks like beer, mead, bjórr (a strong fruit wine) and, for the rich, imported wine, were served.[208][209]

Certain livestock were typical and unique to the Vikings, including the Icelandic horse, Icelandic cattle, a plethora of sheep breeds,[210] the Danish hen and the Danish goose.[211][212] The Vikings in York mostly ate beef, mutton, and pork with small amounts of horse meat. Most of the beef and horse leg bones were found split lengthways, to extract the marrow. The mutton and swine were cut into leg and shoulder joints and chops. The frequent remains of pig skull and foot bones found on house floors indicate that brawn and trotters were also popular. Hens were kept for both their meat and eggs, and the bones of game birds such as black grouse, golden plover, wild ducks, and geese have also been found.[213]

Seafood was important, in some places even more so than meat. Whales and walrus were hunted for food in Norway and the northwestern parts of the North Atlantic region, and seals were hunted nearly everywhere. Oysters, mussels and shrimp were eaten in large quantities and cod and salmon were popular fish. In the southern regions, herring was also important.[214][215][216]

Milk and buttermilk were popular, both as cooking ingredients and drinks, but were not always available, even at farms.[217] Milk came from cows, goats and sheep, with priorities varying from location to location,[218] and fermented milk products like skyr or surmjölk were produced as well as butter and cheese.[219]

Food was often salted and enhanced with spices, some of which were imported like black pepper, while others were cultivated in herb gardens or harvested in the wild. Home grown spices included caraway, mustard and horseradish as evidenced from the Oseberg ship burial[208] or dill, coriander, and wild celery, as found in cesspits at Coppergate in York. Thyme, juniper berry, sweet gale, yarrow, rue and peppercress were also used and cultivated in herb gardens.[205][220]

Everyday life in the Viking Age

Vikings collected and ate fruits, berries and nuts. Apple (wild crab apples), plums and cherries were part of the diet,[221] as were rose hips and raspberry, wild strawberry, blackberry, elderberry, rowan, hawthorn and various wild berries, specific to the locations.[220] Hazelnuts were an important part of the diet in general and large amounts of walnut shells have been found in cities like Hedeby. The shells were used for dyeing, and it is assumed that the nuts were consumed.[205][217]

The invention and introduction of the mouldboard plough revolutionised agriculture in Scandinavia in the early Viking Age and made it possible to farm even poor soils. In Ribe, grains of rye, barley, oat and wheat dated to the 8th century have been found and examined, and are believed to have been cultivated locally.[222] Grains and flour were used for making porridges, some cooked with milk, some cooked with fruit and sweetened with honey, and also various forms of bread. Remains of bread from primarily Birka in Sweden were made of barley and wheat. It is unclear if the Norse leavened their breads, but their ovens and baking utensils suggest that they did.[223] Flax was a very important crop for the Vikings: it was used for oil extraction, food consumption, and most importantly, the production of linen. More than 40% of all known textile recoveries from the Viking Age can be traced as linen. This suggests a much higher actual percentage, as linen is poorly preserved compared to wool, for example.[224]

The quality of food for common people was not always particularly high. The research at Coppergate shows that the Vikings in York made bread from wholemeal flour—probably both wheat and rye—but with the seeds of cornfield weeds included. Corncockle (Agrostemma), would have made the bread dark-coloured, but the seeds are poisonous, and people who ate the bread might have become ill. Seeds of carrots, parsnip, and brassicas were also discovered, but they were poor specimens and tend to come from white carrots and bitter tasting cabbages.[221] The rotary querns often used in the Viking Age left tiny stone fragments (often from basalt rock) in the flour, which when eaten wore down the teeth. The effects of this can be seen on skeletal remains from that period.[223]

Sports

Sports were widely practised and encouraged by the Vikings.[225] Sports that involved weapons training and developing combat skills were popular. These included spear and stone throwing, building and testing physical strength through wrestling (see glima), fist fighting, and stone lifting.[226] In areas with mountains, mountain climbing was practised as a sport. Agility and balance were built and tested by running and jumping for sport, and there is mention of a sport that involved jumping from oar to oar on the outside of a ship's railing as it was being rowed.[227] Swimming was a popular sport[228] – Snorri Sturluson describes three types: diving, long-distance swimming, and a contest in which two swimmers try to dunk one another. Children often participated in some of the sport disciplines,[229] and women have also been mentioned as swimmers, although it is unclear if they took part in competitions. King Olaf Tryggvason was acclaimed for his skill in both mountain climbing and oar-jumping, and reputedly excelled in the art of knife juggling as well. Skiing and ice skating were the principal winter sports, and also provided transport on snow and ice for adults.[225]

Horse fighting was practised for sport, although the rules are unclear. It appears to have involved two stallions pitted against each other, within smell and sight of fenced-off mares. Whatever the rules were, the fights often resulted in the death of one of the stallions.

Icelandic sources often mention knattleik, a ball game similar to hockey, played with a bat and a small hard ball, usually on a smooth surface of ice. Popular with both adults and children, it was a rugged game that often led to injuries. Knattleik appears to have been played only in Iceland, where it attracted many spectators, as did horse fighting.[225]

Hunting was practiced as a sport only in Denmark, where it was not an essential food source. Deer and hares were hunted for meat, along with partridges and sea birds, while foxes were hunted to stop their killing of farm animals and for their furs. Spears, bows, and later crossbows, were the weapons used; stalking was the most common method, although game was also chased with dogs. Numerous kinds of snares and traps were used as well.[225]

Games and entertainment

Rook, Lewis chessmen, at the National Museum of Scotland

Archaeological finds and written sources indicate that the Vikings participated in social gatherings and festivities.[230][231] Board games and dice games were a popular pastime. Game boards were made of ornately carved wood, with gaming pieces fashioned mostly from wood, bone, or stone. Pieces were also made of glass, amber, and antler, along with materials such as walrus tusk and ivory from foreign sources. The Vikings played several types of tafl games; hnefatafl, nitavl (nine men's morris) and the less common kvatrutafl.[225]

Hnefatafl was probably the oldest type of board game played in medieval Scandinavia.[225] The archaeological record indicates that hnefatafl was popular by the early medieval period, with the Vikings introducing it to England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland.[232] The Ockelbo Runestone shows two men possibly playing hnefatafl,[233] and one saga suggests that dice games involved gambling.[230]

Beer and mead were served on festive occasions, where music was played, poetry was recited, and stories were told.[230] Music was considered an art form and musical skill was viewed as suitable for a cultivated man. The Vikings are known to have played instruments including harps, lutes, lyres and fiddles.[225]

Cultural assimilation

Elements of a Scandinavian identity and practices were maintained in settler societies, but they could be quite distinct as the groups assimilated into neighbouring societies. Assimilation to the Frankish culture in Normandy for example was rapid.[234] Links to a Viking identity remained longer in the remote islands of Iceland and the Faroes.[234]

Weapons and warfare

Main article: Viking Age arms and armour

Viking swords

Knowledge about the arms and armour of the Viking age is based on archaeological finds, pictorial representation, and to some extent on the accounts in the Norse sagas and Norse laws recorded in the 13th century. According to custom, all free Norse men were required to own weapons and were permitted to carry them at all times. These arms indicated a Viking's social status: a wealthy Viking had a complete ensemble of a helmet, shield, mail shirt, and sword. However, swords were rarely used in battle; they were probably not sturdy enough for combat and most likely only used as symbolic or decorative items.[235][236]

A typical bóndi (freeman) was more likely to fight with a spear and shield, and most also carried a seax as a utility knife and side-arm. Bows were used in the opening stages of land battles and at sea, but they tended to be considered less "honourable" than melee weapons. Vikings were relatively unusual for the time in their use of axes as a main battle weapon. The Húscarls, the elite guard of King Cnut (and later of King Harold II) were armed with two-handed axes that could split shields or metal helmets with ease.

The warfare and violence of the Vikings were often motivated and fuelled by their beliefs in Norse religion, focusing on Thor and Odin, the gods of war and death.[237][238]

The Viking warrior is often associated with violent fits of rage and frenzied fighting in modern popular culture, as reflected in meanings attached to the words berserkergang and berserker that would not have been the meanings understood by medieval Norse society.[239] Such a fighting style may have been deployed intentionally by shock troops, and it has been proposed that the berserk-state may have been induced by consuming large amounts of alcohol,[240] or through ingestion of materials with psychoactive properties, such as the solanaceous plant Hyoscyamus niger, as speculated by Karsten Fatur[241] or by consumption of the hallucinogenic mushroom Amanita muscaria, as first hypothesised by the Swedish theologian Samuel Ødman in 1784 and later by the botanist F.C. Schübeler in 1885.[242] The Norwegian battlefield archaeologist Are Skarstein Kolberg asserts that "...Ödman's hypothesis is not supported by the saga literature or by the archaeological record",[243] and according to Roderick Dale, there is no evidence for it from the Viking Age or from Old Norse literature.[239]

Trade

See also: Trade during the Viking Age, Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, and Volga trade route

The scales and weights of a Viking trader, used for measuring silver and sometimes gold (From the Sigtuna box found in Sweden)

The Vikings established and engaged in extensive trading networks throughout the known world and had a profound influence on the economic development of Europe and Scandinavia.[244][245]

Other than in such trading centres as Ribe Hedeby in Denmark, Scandinavia was unfamiliar with the use of coinage. Therefore, its economy was based on bullion; that is, the purity and weight of precious metals used in exchange. Silver was the precious metal most commonly used, although gold was also used. Traders carried small portable scales, enabling them to measure weight precisely, which allowed an accurate medium of exchange, even lacking a regular coinage.[246]

Goods

Organised trade covered everything from ordinary items in bulk to exotic luxury products. The Viking ship designs, like that of the knarr, were an important factor in their success as merchants.[247] Imported goods from other cultures included:[248]

Spices were obtained from Chinese and Persian traders, who met with the Viking traders in Russia. Vikings used homegrown spices and herbs like caraway, thyme, horseradish and mustard,[249] but imported cinnamon.

Glass was much prized by the Norse. The imported glass was often made into beads for decoration and these have been found in the thousands. Åhus in Scania and the old market town of Ribe were major centres of glass bead production.[250][251][252]

Silk was a very important commodity obtained from Byzantium (modern day Istanbul) and China. It was valued by many European cultures of the time, and the Vikings used it to indicate status such as wealth and nobility. Many of the archaeological finds in Scandinavia include silk.[253][254][255]

Wine was imported from France and Germany as a drink of the wealthy, augmenting the regular mead and beer.

To counter these valuable imports, the Vikings exported a large variety of goods. These goods included:[248]

Mjölnir, hammer of Thor, made of amber (Found in Sweden)

Amber—the fossilised resin of the pine tree—was frequently found on the North Sea and Baltic coastline. It was worked into beads and ornamental objects, before being traded. (See also the Amber Road).

Fur was also exported as it provided warmth. This included the furs of pine martens, foxes, bears, otters and beavers.

Cloth and wool. The Vikings were skilled spinners and weavers and exported woollen cloth of a high quality.

Down was collected and exported. The Norwegian west coast supplied eiderdowns and sometimes feathers were bought from the Samis. Down was used for bedding and quilted clothing. Fowling on the steep slopes and cliffs was dangerous work and was often lethal.[256]

Slaves, known as thralls in Old Norse. On their raids, the Vikings captured many people, among them monks and clergymen. They were sometimes sold as slaves to Arab merchants in exchange for silver.

Other exports included weapons, walrus ivory, wax, salt and cod. As one of the more exotic exports, hunting birds were sometimes provided from Norway to the European aristocracy, from the 10th century.[256]

Many of these goods were also traded within the Viking world itself, as well as goods such as soapstone and whetstone. Soapstone was traded with the Norse on Iceland and in Jutland, who used it for pottery. Whetstones were traded and used for sharpening weapons, tools and knives.[248] There are indications from Ribe and surrounding areas, that the extensive medieval trade with oxen and cattle from Jutland (see Ox Road), reach as far back as c. 720 AD. This trade satisfied the Vikings' need for leather and meat to some extent, and perhaps hides for parchment production on the European mainland. Wool was also very important as a domestic product for the Vikings, to produce warm clothing for the cold Scandinavian and Nordic climate, and for sails. Sails for Viking ships required large amounts of wool, as evidenced by experimental archaeology. There are archaeological signs of organised textile productions in Scandinavia, reaching as far back as the early Iron Ages. Artisans and craftsmen in the larger towns were supplied with antlers from organised hunting with large-scale reindeer traps in the far north. They were used as raw material for making everyday utensils like combs.[256]

Legacy

Medieval perceptions

Exploration and expansion routes of Norsemen

In England the Viking Age began dramatically on 8 June 793 when Norsemen destroyed the abbey on the island of Lindisfarne. The devastation of Northumbria's Holy Island shocked and alerted the royal courts of Europe to the Viking presence. "Never before has such an atrocity been seen", declared the Northumbrian scholar Alcuin of York.[257] Medieval Christians in Europe were totally unprepared for the Viking incursions and could find no explanation for their arrival and the accompanying suffering they experienced at their hands save the "Wrath of God".[258] More than any other single event, the attack on Lindisfarne demonised perception of the Vikings for the next twelve centuries. Not until the 1890s did scholars outside Scandinavia begin to seriously reassess the achievements of the Vikings, recognising their artistry, technological skills, and seamanship.[259]

Norse Mythology, sagas, and literature tell of Scandinavian culture and religion through tales of heroic and mythological heroes. Early transmission of this information was primarily oral, and later texts relied on the writings and transcriptions of Christian scholars, including the Icelanders Snorri Sturluson and Sæmundur fróði. Many of these sagas were written in Iceland, and most of them, even if they had no Icelandic provenance, were preserved there after the Middle Ages due to the continued interest of Icelanders in Norse literature and legal codes.

The 200-year Viking influence on European history is filled with tales of plunder and colonisation, and the majority of these chronicles came from western European witnesses and their descendants. Less common, although equally relevant, are references to Vikings in chronicles that originated in the east, including the Nestor chronicles, Novgorod chronicles, Ibn Fadlan chronicles, Ibn Rusta chronicles, and brief mentions by Photius, patriarch of Constantinople, regarding the first Viking attack on the Byzantine Empire. Other chroniclers of Viking history include Adam of Bremen, who wrote, in the fourth volume of his Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum, "[t]here is much gold here (in Zealand), accumulated by piracy. These pirates, which are called wichingi by their own people, and Ascomanni by our own people, pay tribute to the Danish king." In 991, the Battle of Maldon between Viking raiders and the inhabitants of Maldon in Essex was commemorated with a poem of the same name.

Post-medieval perceptions

A modern reenactment of a Viking battle

Early modern publications, dealing with what is now called Viking culture, appeared in the 16th century, e.g. Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus (History of the northern people) of Olaus Magnus (1555), and the first edition of the 13th-century Gesta Danorum (Deeds of the Danes), by Saxo Grammaticus, in 1514. The pace of publication increased during the 17th century with Latin translations of the Edda (notably Peder Resen's Edda Islandorum of 1665).

In Scandinavia, the 17th-century Danish scholars Thomas Bartholin and Ole Worm and the Swede Olaus Rudbeck used runic inscriptions and Icelandic sagas as historical sources. An important early British contributor to the study of the Vikings was George Hickes, who published his Linguarum vett. septentrionalium thesaurus (Dictionary of the Old Northern Languages) in 1703–05. During the 18th century, British interest and enthusiasm for Iceland and early Scandinavian culture grew dramatically, expressed in English translations of Old Norse texts and in original poems that extolled the supposed Viking virtues.

The word "viking" was first popularised at the beginning of the 19th century by Erik Gustaf Geijer in his poem, The Viking. Geijer's poem did much to propagate the new romanticised ideal of the Viking, which had little basis in historical fact. The renewed interest of Romanticism in the Old North had contemporary political implications. The Geatish Society, of which Geijer was a member, popularised this myth to a great extent. Another Swedish author who had great influence on the perception of the Vikings was Esaias Tegnér, a member of the Geatish Society, who wrote a modern version of Friðþjófs saga hins frœkna, which became widely popular in the Nordic countries, the United Kingdom, and Germany.

Viking long ships besieging Paris in 845, 19th century portrayal

Fascination with the Vikings reached a peak during the so-called Viking revival in the late 18th and 19th centuries as a form of Romantic nationalism.[260] In Britain this was called Septentrionalism, in Germany "Wagnerian" pathos, and in the Scandinavian countries Scandinavism. Pioneering 19th-century scholarly editions of the Viking Age began to reach a small readership in Britain. Archaeologists began to dig up Britain's Viking past, and linguistic enthusiasts started to identify the Viking-Age origins of rural idioms and proverbs. The new dictionaries of the Old Norse language enabled the Victorians to grapple with the primary Icelandic sagas.[261]

Until recently, the history of the Viking Age was largely based on Icelandic sagas, the history of the Danes written by Saxo Grammaticus, the Primary Chronicle, and Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib. Few scholars still accept these texts as reliable sources, as historians now rely more on archaeology and numismatics, disciplines that have made valuable contributions toward understanding the period.[262][citation needed]

In 20th-century politics

The romanticised idea of the Vikings constructed in scholarly and popular circles in northwestern Europe in the 19th and early 20th centuries was a potent one, and the figure of the Viking became a familiar and malleable symbol in different contexts in the politics and political ideologies of 20th-century Europe.[263] In Normandy, which had been settled by Vikings, the Viking ship became an uncontroversial regional symbol. In Germany, awareness of Viking history in the 19th century had been stimulated by the border dispute with Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein and the use of Scandinavian mythology by Richard Wagner. The idealised view of the Vikings appealed to Germanic supremacists who transformed the figure of the Viking in accordance with the ideology of a Germanic master race.[264] Building on the linguistic and cultural connections between Norse-speaking Scandinavians and other Germanic groups in the distant past, Scandinavian Vikings were portrayed in Nazi Germany as a pure Germanic type. The cultural phenomenon of Viking expansion was re-interpreted for use as propaganda to support the extreme militant nationalism of the Third Reich, and ideologically informed interpretations of Viking paganism and the Scandinavian use of runes were employed in the construction of Nazi mysticism. Other political organisations of the same ilk, such as the former Norwegian fascist party Nasjonal Samling, similarly appropriated elements of the modern Viking cultural myth in their symbolism and propaganda.

Soviet and earlier Slavophile historians emphasised a Slavic rooted foundation in contrast to the Normanist theory of the Vikings conquering the Slavs and founding the Kievan Rus'.[265] They accused Normanist theory proponents of distorting history by depicting the Slavs as undeveloped primitives. In contrast, Soviet historians stated that the Slavs laid the foundations of their statehood long before the Norman/Viking raids, while the Norman/Viking invasions only served to hinder the historical development of the Slavs. They argued that Rus' composition was Slavic and that Rurik and Oleg's success was rooted in their support from within the local Slavic aristocracy.[citation needed]. After the dissolution of the USSR, Novgorod acknowledged its Viking history by incorporating a Viking ship into its logo.[266]

In modern popular culture

Main article: Norse mythology in popular culture

This section may contain irrelevant references to popular culture. Please remove the content or add citations to reliable and independent sources. (December 2019)

Viking reenactment training (Jomsvikings group)

Led by the operas of German composer Richard Wagner, such as Der Ring des Nibelungen, Vikings and the Romanticist Viking Revival have inspired many creative works. These have included novels directly based on historical events, such as Frans Gunnar Bengtsson's The Long Ships (which was also released as a 1963 film), and historical fantasies such as the film The Vikings, Michael Crichton's Eaters of the Dead (movie version called The 13th Warrior), and the comedy film Erik the Viking. The vampire Eric Northman, in the HBO TV series True Blood, was a Viking prince before being turned into a vampire. Vikings appear in several books by the Danish American writer Poul Anderson, while British explorer, historian, and writer Tim Severin authored a trilogy of novels in 2005 about a young Viking adventurer Thorgils Leifsson, who travels around the world.

In 1962, American comic book writer Stan Lee and his brother Larry Lieber, together with Jack Kirby, created the Marvel Comics superhero Thor, which they based on the Norse god of the same name. The character is featured in the 2011 Marvel Studios film Thor and its sequels. The character also appears in the 2012 film The Avengers and its associated animated series.

The appearance of Vikings within popular media and television has seen a resurgence in recent decades, especially with the History Channel's series Vikings (2013), directed by Michael Hirst. The show has a loose grounding in historical facts and sources, but bases itself more so on literary sources, such as fornaldarsaga Ragnars saga loðbrókar, itself more legend than fact, and Old Norse Eddic and Skaldic poetry.[267] The events of the show frequently make references to the Völuspá, an Eddic poem describing the creation of the world, often directly referencing specific lines of the poem in the dialogue.[268] The show portrays some of the social realities of the medieval Scandinavian world, such as slavery[269] and the greater role of women within Viking society.[270] The show also addresses the topics of gender equity in Viking society with the inclusion of shield maidens through the character Lagertha, also based on a legendary figure.[271] Recent archaeological interpretations and osteological analyses of previous excavations of Viking burials have given support to the idea of the Viking woman warrior, namely the excavation and DNA study of the Birka female Viking warrior, within recent years. However, the conclusions remain contentious.

Vikings have served as an inspiration for numerous video games, such as The Lost Vikings (1993), Age of Mythology (2002), and For Honor (2017).[272] All three Vikings from The Lost Vikings series—Erik the Swift, Baleog the Fierce, and Olaf the Stout—appeared as a playable hero in the crossover title Heroes of the Storm (2015).[273] The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim (2011) is an action role-playing video game heavily inspired by Viking culture.[274][275] Vikings are the lead focus of the 2020 video game Assassin's Creed Valhalla, which is set in 873 AD, and recounts an alternative history of the Viking invasion of Britain.[276]

Modern reconstructions of Viking mythology have shown a persistent influence in late 20th- and early 21st-century popular culture in some countries, inspiring comics, movies, television series, role-playing games, computer games, and music, including Viking metal, a subgenre of heavy metal music.

Since the 1960s, there has been rising enthusiasm for historical reenactment. While the earliest groups had little claim for historical accuracy, the seriousness and accuracy of reenactors has increased. The largest such groups include The Vikings and Regia Anglorum, though many smaller groups exist in Europe, North America, New Zealand, and Australia. Many reenactor groups participate in live-steel combat, and a few have Viking-style ships or boats.

The Minnesota Vikings of the National Football League are so-named owing to the large Scandinavian population in the US state of Minnesota.

During the banking boom of the first decade of the twenty-first century, Icelandic financiers came to be styled as útrásarvíkingar (roughly 'raiding Vikings').[277][278][279]

Experimental archaeology

Experimental archaeology of the Viking Age is a flourishing branch and several places have been dedicated to this technique, such as Jorvik Viking Centre in the United Kingdom, Sagnlandet Lejre and Ribe Viking Center [da] in Denmark, Foteviken Museum in Sweden or Lofotr Viking Museum in Norway. Viking-age reenactors have undertaken experimental activities such as iron smelting and forging using Norse techniques at Norstead in Newfoundland for example.[280]

On 1 July 2007, the reconstructed Viking ship Skuldelev 2, renamed Sea Stallion,[281] began a journey from Roskilde to Dublin. The remains of that ship and four others were discovered during a 1962 excavation in the Roskilde Fjord. Tree-ring analysis has shown the ship was built of oak in the vicinity of Dublin in about 1042. Seventy multinational crew members sailed the ship back to its home, and Sea Stallion arrived outside Dublin's Custom House on 14 August 2007. The purpose of the voyage was to test and document the seaworthiness, speed, and manoeuvrability of the ship on the rough open sea and in coastal waters with treacherous currents. The crew tested how the long, narrow, flexible hull withstood the tough ocean waves. The expedition also provided valuable new information on Viking longships and society. The ship was built using Viking tools, materials, and much of the same methods as the original ship.

Other vessels, often replicas of the Gokstad ship (full- or half-scale) or Skuldelev have been built and tested as well. The Snorri (a Skuldelev I Knarr), was sailed from Greenland to Newfoundland in 1998.[282]

Common misconceptions

Horned helmets

Main article: Horned helmet

Magnus Barelegs Viking Festival

Apart from two or three representations of (ritual) helmets—with protrusions that may be either stylised ravens, snakes, or horns—no depiction of the helmets of Viking warriors, and no preserved helmet, has horns. The formal, close-quarters style of Viking combat (either in shield walls or aboard "ship islands") would have made horned helmets cumbersome and hazardous to the warrior's own side.

Historians therefore believe that Viking warriors did not wear horned helmets; whether such helmets were used in Scandinavian culture for other, ritual purposes, remains unproven. The general misconception that Viking warriors wore horned helmets was partly promulgated by the 19th-century enthusiasts of Götiska Förbundet, founded in 1811 in Stockholm.[283] They promoted the use of Norse mythology as the subject of high art and other ethnological and moral aims.

The Vikings were often depicted with winged helmets and in other clothing taken from Classical antiquity, especially in depictions of Norse gods. This was done to legitimise the Vikings and their mythology by associating it with the Classical world, which had long been idealised in European culture.

The latter-day mythos created by national romantic ideas blended the Viking Age with aspects of the Nordic Bronze Age some 2,000 years earlier. Horned helmets from the Bronze Age were shown in petroglyphs and appeared in archaeological finds (see Bohuslän and Vikso helmets). They were probably used for ceremonial purposes.[284]

Modern "Viking" helmets

Cartoons like Hägar the Horrible and Vicky the Viking, and sports kits such as those of the Minnesota Vikings and Canberra Raiders have perpetuated the myth of the horned helmet.[285]

Viking helmets were conical, made from hard leather with wood and metallic reinforcements for regular troops. The iron helmet with mask and mail was for the chieftains, based on the previous Vendel-age helmets from central Sweden. The only original Viking helmet discovered is the Gjermundbu helmet, found in Norway. This helmet is made of iron and has been dated to the 10th century.[286]

Barbarity

The image of wild-haired, dirty savages sometimes associated with the Vikings in popular culture is a distorted picture of reality.[9] Viking tendencies were often misreported, and the work of Adam of Bremen, among others, told largely disputable tales of Viking savagery and uncleanliness.[287]

Use of skulls as drinking vessels

There is no evidence that Vikings drank out of the skulls of vanquished enemies. This was a misconception based on a passage in the skaldic poem Krákumál speaking of heroes drinking from ór bjúgviðum hausa (branches of skulls). This was a reference to drinking horns, but was mistranslated in the 17th century[288] as referring to the skulls of the slain.[289]

Genetic legacy

Margaryan et al. 2020 analysed 442 Viking world individuals from various archaeological sites in Europe.[16] They were found to be closely related to modern Scandinavians. The Y-DNA composition of the individuals in the study was also similar to that of modern Scandinavians. The most common Y-DNA haplogroup was I1 (95 samples), followed by R1b (84 samples) and R1a, especially (but not exclusively) of the Scandinavian R1a-Z284 subclade (61 samples). The study showed what many historians have hypothesised: that it was common for Norseman settlers to marry foreign women. Some individuals from the study, such as those found in Foggia, displayed typical Scandinavian Y-DNA haplogroups but also southern European autosomal ancestry, suggesting that they were the descendants of Viking settler males and local women. The five individual samples from Foggia were likely Normans. The same pattern of a combination of Scandinavian Y-DNA and local autosomal ancestry is seen in other samples from the study, for example Varangians buried near lake Ladoga and Vikings in England, suggesting that Viking men had married into local families in those places too.[16]

The study found evidence of a Swedish influx into Estonia and Finland; and Norwegian influx into Ireland, Iceland and Greenland during the Viking Age. However, the authors commented "Viking Age Danish-like ancestry in the British Isles cannot be distinguished from that of the Angles and Saxons, who migrated in the fifth to sixth centuries AD from Jutland and northern Germany".[16]

Margaryan et al. 2020 examined the skeletal remains of 42 individuals from the Salme ship burials in Estonia. The skeletal remains belonged to warriors killed in battle who were later buried together with numerous valuable weapons and armour. DNA testing and isotope analysis revealed that the men came from central Sweden.[16]

Female descent studies show evidence of Norse descent in areas closest to Scandinavia, such as the Shetland and Orkney islands.[290] Inhabitants of lands farther away show most Norse descent in the male Y-chromosome lines.[291]

A specialised genetic and surname study in Liverpool showed marked Norse heritage: up to 50% of males of families that lived there before the years of industrialisation and population expansion.[292] High percentages of Norse inheritance—tracked through the R-M420 haplotype—were also found among males in the Wirral and West Lancashire.[293] This was similar to the percentage of Norse inheritance found among males in the Orkney Islands.[294]

Recent research suggests that the Celtic warrior Somerled, who drove the Vikings out of western Scotland and was the progenitor of Clan Donald, may have been of Viking descent, a member of haplogroup R-M420.[295]

Margaryan et al. 2020 examined an elite warrior burial from Bodzia (Poland) dated to 1010–1020 AD. The cemetery in Bodzia is exceptional in terms of Scandinavian and Kievian Rus links. The Bodzia man (sample VK157, or burial E864/I) was not a simple warrior from the princely retinue, but he belonged to the princely family himself. His burial is the richest one in the whole cemetery. Moreover, strontium analysis of his teeth enamel shows he was not local.  It is assumed that he came to Poland with the Prince of Kiev, Sviatopolk the Accursed, and met a violent death in combat. This corresponds to the events of 1018 AD when Sviatopolk himself disappeared after having retreated from Kiev to Poland. It cannot be excluded that the Bodzia man was Sviatopolk himself, as the genealogy of the Rurikids at this period is extremely sketchy and the dates of birth of many princes of this dynasty may be quite approximative. The Bodzia man carried haplogroup I1-S2077 and had both Scandinavian ancestry and Russian admixture.[16][296]

See also

Faroese people

Geats

Gotlander

Gutasaga

Oeselians

Proto-Norse language

Scandinavian prehistory

Swedes (Germanic tribe)

Ushkuiniks, Novgorod's privateers

Viking activity in the British Isles

Viking raid warfare and tactics

Wokou

Notes

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References

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^ Näsman, Ulf (1 November 2000). "Raids, Migrations, and Kingdoms". Acta Archaeologica. 71 (1): 1–7. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0390.2000.d01-1.x. ISSN 1600-0390. S2CID 162638243.

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^ Choi 2016.

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^ Raffield, Ben; Price, Neil; Collard, Mark (1 May 2017). "Male-biased operational sex ratios and the Viking phenomenon: an evolutionary anthropological perspective on Late Iron Age Scandinavian raiding". Evolution and Human Behavior. 38 (3): 315–24. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2016.10.013. hdl:2164/8759. ISSN 1090-5138.

^ "Vikings may have first taken to seas to find women, slaves". Science | AAAS. 13 April 2016. Archived from the original on 27 July 2019. Retrieved 19 July 2019.

^ Andrea Dolfini; Rachel J. Crellin; Christian Horn; Marion Uckelmann (2018). Prehistoric Warfare and Violence: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. Springer. p. 349. ISBN 978-3-319-78828-9. Archived from the original on 14 April 2023. Retrieved 11 August 2019.

^ a b Simek, Rudolf (2004). "The Emergence of the Viking Age: Reasons and Triggers". In Simek, Rudolf; Engel, Ulrike (eds.). Vikings on the Rhine: Recent Research on Early Medieval Relations Between the Rhinelands and Scandinavia | Volume 11 of Studia medievalia Septentrionalia. Vienna: Fassbaender. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-3-900538-83-5. OCLC 55887913.

^ Bruno Dumézil, master of Conference at Paris X-Nanterre, Normalien, aggregated history, author of conversion and freedom in the barbarian kingdoms. 5th–8th centuries (Fayard, 2005)

^ "Franques Royal Annals" cited in Sawyer, History of the Vikings, p. 20

^ Dictionnaire d'histoire de France, Perrin, Alain Decaux and André Castelot, 1981, pp. 184–85. ISBN 2-7242-3080-9.

^ "the Vikings" R. Boyer history, myths, dictionary, Robert Laffont several 2008, p. 96 ISBN 978-2-221-10631-0

^ François-Xavier Dillmann, "Viking civilisation and culture. A bibliography of French-language", Caen, Centre for research on the countries of the North and Northwest, University of Caen, 1975, p. 19, and "Les Vikings: the Scandinavian and European 800–1200", 22nd exhibition of art from the Council of Europe, 1992, p. 26

^ "History of the Kings of Norway" by Snorri Sturlusson translated by Professor of History François-Xavier Dillmann, Gallimard ISBN 2-07-073211-8 pp. 15–16, 18, 24, 33–34, 38

^ a b "Viking expeditions and raids". National Museum of Denmark. Archived from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2015.

^ Macauley Richardson, Lloyd. "Books: Eurasian Exploration". Policy Review. Hoover Institution. Archived from the original on 16 December 2009.

^ Crone, Patricia. Meccan trade and the rise of Islam Archived 1 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine. First Georgias Press. 2004.

^ Richards, J.D. (2005). The Vikings : a very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 50.

^ Tignor; Adelman; Brown; Elman; Liu; Pittman; Shaw. Worlds Together Worlds Apart Volume One: Beginnings Through the 15th Century (Fourth ed.). London: Norton. p. 352.

^ T. D. Kendrick, A History of the Vikings, Courier Dover Publications, 2004, pp. 179ff, ISBN 978-0-486-43396-7

^ Roesdahl, pp. 295–97

^ Gareth Williams, "Kingship, Christianity and coinage: monetary and political perspectives on silver economy in the Viking Age", in Silver Economy in the Viking Age, ed. James Graham-Campbell and Gareth Williams, pp. 177–214; ISBN 978-1-59874-222-0

^ Roesdahl, p. 296

^ The Northern Crusades: Second Edition by Eric Christiansen; ISBN 0-14-026653-4

^ "Written sources shed light on Viking travels". National Museum of Denmark. Archived from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2015.

^ Hall, 2010, pp. 8 passim.

^ Roesdahl, pp. 16–22.

^ Hall, pp. 8–11

^ Lindqvist, pp. 160–61

^ See List of English words of Old Norse origin for further explanations on specific words.

^ See Norman toponymy.

^ Henriksen, Louise Kæmpe: Nordic place names in Europe Archived 22 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine Viking Ship Museum Roskilde

^ Viking Words Archived 3 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine The British Library

^ Department of Scandinavian Research Archived 8 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine University of Copenhagen

^ See information on the "Slavonic and Norse names of the Dnieper rapids" on Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks.

^ Else Roesdahl (prof. in Arch. & Hist.): The Vikings, Penguin Books (1999), ISBN 0-14-025282-7

^ a b Olstad, Lisa (16 December 2002). "Ein minnestein for å hedre seg sjølv". forskning.no. Archived from the original on 29 August 2005. Retrieved 20 April 2008.

^ Zilmer 2005:38

^ "Runestones: Words from the Viking Age". 4 April 2013. Archived from the original on 23 May 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2020.

^ Nikel, David. "The Stunning Viking Runestones of Scandinavia". Forbes. Archived from the original on 23 May 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2020.

^ Jansson 1980:34.

^ Thunberg, Carl L. (2010). Ingvarståget och dess monument. Göteborgs universitet. CLTS. ISBN 978-91-981859-2-8.

^ Thunberg 2010:18–51.

^ Jelling stones. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 15 March 2013.

^ Rundata, DR 42

^ baþum (Sm101), see Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF Archived 12 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine

^ In the nominative: krikiaR (G216). In the genitive: girkha (U922$), k—ika (U104). In the dative: girkium (U1087†), kirikium (SöFv1954;20, U73, U140), ki(r)k(i)(u)(m) (Ög94$), kirkum (U136), krikium (Sö163, U431), krikum (Ög81A, Ög81B, Sö85, Sö165, Vg178, U201, U518), kri(k)um (U792), krikum (Sm46†, U446†), krkum (U358), kr... (Sö345$A), kRkum (Sö82). In the accusative: kriki (Sö170). Uncertain case krik (U1016$Q). Greece also appears as griklanti (U112B), kriklati (U540), kriklontr (U374$), see Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF Archived 12 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine

^ Karusm (Vs1), see Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF Archived 12 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine

^ iaursaliR (G216), iursala (U605†), iursalir (U136G216, U605, U136), see Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF Archived 12 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine

^ lakbarþilanti (SöFv1954;22), see Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF Archived 12 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine

^ Thunberg, Carl L. (2011). Särkland och dess källmaterial. Göteborgs universitet. CLTS. pp. 23–58. ISBN 978-91-981859-3-5.

^ serklat (G216), se(r)kl... (Sö279), sirklanti (Sö131), sirk:lan:ti (Sö179), sirk*la(t)... (Sö281), srklant- (U785), skalat- (U439), see Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF Archived 12 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine

^ eklans (Vs18$), eklans (Sö83†), ekla-s (Vs5), enklans (Sö55), iklans (Sö207), iklanþs

(U539C), ailati (Ög104), aklati (Sö166), akla- (U616$), anklanti (U194), eg×loti (U812), eklanti (Sö46, Sm27), eklati (ÖgFv1950;341, Sm5C, Vs9), enklanti (DR6C), haklati (Sm101), iklanti (Vg20), iklati (Sm77), ikla-ti (Gs8), i...-ti (Sm104), ok*lanti (Vg187), oklati (Sö160), onklanti (U241), onklati (U344), -klanti (Sm29$), iklot (N184), see Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF Archived 12 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine

^ luntunum (DR337$B), see Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF Archived 12 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine

^ Brix, Lise (21 May 2015). "Isolated people in Sweden only stopped using runes 100 years ago". sciencenordic.com. Archived from the original on 23 May 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2020.

^ Ekberg, Lena (2010). "The National Minority Languages in Sweden". In Gerhard Stickel (ed.). National, Regional and Minority Languages in Europe: Contributions to the Annual Conference 2009 of Efnil in Dublin. Peter Lang. pp. 87–92. ISBN 9783631603659. Retrieved 6 March 2013.

^ Kroonen, Guus. "On the origins of the Elfdalian nasal vowels from the perspective of diachronic dialectology and Germanic etymology" (PDF). Department of Nordic Studies and Linguistics. University of Copenhagen. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 February 2016. Retrieved 27 January 2016. In many aspects, Elfdalian, takes up a middle position between East and West Nordic. However, it shares some innovations with West Nordic, but none with East Nordic. This invalidates the claim that Elfdalian split off from Old Swedish

^ Dahl, Östen; Dahlberg, Ingrid; Delsing, Lars-Olof; Halvarsson, Herbert; Larsson, Gösta; Nyström, Gunnar; Olsson, Rut; Sapir, Yair; Steensland, Lars; Williams, Henrik (8 February 2007). "Älvdalskan är ett språk – inte en svensk dialekt" [Elfdalian is a language – not a Swedish dialect]. Aftonbladet (in Swedish). Stockholm. Archived from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 7 March 2013.

^ Dahl, Östen (December 2008). "Älvdalska – eget språk eller värsting bland dialekter?" [Elfdalian – its own language or an outstanding dialect?]. Språktidningen (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 7 December 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2013.

^ Zach, Kristine (2013). "Das Älvdalische – Sprache oder Dialekt? (Diplomarbeit)" [Elfdalian – Language or dialect? (Masters thesis)] (PDF) (in German). University of Vienna. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 February 2020. Retrieved 25 April 2020.

^ a b Jasmine Idun Tova Lyman (2007), Viking Age graves in Iceland (PDF), University of Iceland, p. 4, archived (PDF) from the original on 27 February 2014, retrieved 23 February 2014

^ Medieval Archaeology: An Encyclopaedia (Pamela Crabtree, ed., 2001), "Vikings," p. 510.

^ Roesdahl, p. 20.

^ Roesdahl p. 70 (in Women, gender roles and children)

^ The Hemlanden cemetery located here is the largest Viking Period cemetery in Scandinavia Phillip Pulsiano; Kirsten Wolf, eds. (1993). Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia (Illustrated ed.). United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis. pp. 238–39. ISBN 978-0-8240-4787-0. Archived from the original on 14 April 2023. Retrieved 29 October 2020.

^ Byock, Jesse; Walker, Phillip; Erlandson, Jon; Holck, Per; Zori, David; Gudmundsson, Magnus; Tveskov, Mark (2005). "A Viking-Age Valley in Iceland: The Mosfell Archaeological Project" (PDF). Medieval Archaeology. XLIX: 195–218. doi:10.1179/007660905x54080. S2CID 162307212. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 May 2020. Retrieved 21 February 2020.

^ See also Jon M. Erlandson.

^ Þór Magnússon: Bátkumlið í Vatnsdal Archived 14 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine, Árbók hins íslenzka fornleifafélags (1966), 1–32

^ A comprehensive list of registered pagan graves in Iceland, can be found in Eldjárn & Fridriksson (2000): Kuml og haugfé.

^ Dale Mackenzie Brown (28 February 2000). "The Fate of Greenland's Vikings". Archaeology. the Archaeological Institute of America. Archived from the original on 20 January 2014. Retrieved 22 February 2014.

^ Longships are sometimes erroneously called drakkar, a corruption of "dragon" in Norse.

^ Hadingham, Evan: Secrets of Viking Ships Archived 12 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine (05.09.00) NOVA science media.

^ Durham, Keith: Viking Longship Osprey Publishing, Oxford, 2002.

^ Block, Leo, To Harness the Wind: A Short History of the Development of Sails Archived 1 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Naval Institute Press, 2002, ISBN 1-55750-209-9

^ Ian Heath, The Vikings, p. 4, Osprey Publishing, 1985.

^ Curry, Andrew (10 June 2013). "The First Vikings". Archaeology. the Archaeological Institute of America. Archived from the original on 28 February 2014. Retrieved 22 February 2014.

^ Sherry, Sophie (5 July 2019). "Archaeologists expected a routine dig in Sweden, but they uncovered two rare Viking burial boats". CNN Travel. Archived from the original on 9 July 2019. Retrieved 6 July 2019.

^ a b Roesdahl, pp. 38–48, 61–71.

^ "Vikings may have first taken to seas to find women, slaves". Science. 15 April 2016. Archived from the original on 1 August 2018. Retrieved 1 August 2018.

^ Karras, Ruth Mazo (2017). "The Identity of the Slave in Scandinavia". In Pargas, Damian Alan; Roşu, Felicia (eds.). Critical Readings on Global Slavery. BRILL. pp. 729–735. ISBN 978-90-04-34661-1. Archived from the original on 11 February 2023. Retrieved 11 February 2023.

^ Mari Kildah (5 December 2013). "Double graves with headless slaves". University of Oslo. Archived from the original on 11 October 2014. Retrieved 23 June 2014.

^ a b c Magnúsdóttir, Auður. "Women and sexual politics", in The Viking World. Routledge, 2008. pp.40–45

^ a b c d e f "Women in the Viking Age" Archived 3 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine. National Museum of Denmark.

^ a b c d e Borgström Eva (in Swedish): Makalösa kvinnor: könsöverskridare i myt och verklighet (Marvelous women : gender benders in myth and reality) Alfabeta/Anamma, Stockholm 2002. ISBN 91-501-0191-9 (inb.). Libris 8707902.

^ a b c d Friðriksdóttir, Jóhanna. Valkyrie: The Women of the Viking World. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2020. pp.98–100.

^ Borgström Eva(in Swedish): Makalösa kvinnor: könsöverskridare i myt och verklighet (Marvelous women : gender benders in myth and reality) Alfabeta/Anamma, Stockholm 2002. ISBN 91-501-0191-9 (inb.). Libris 8707902.

^ a b c d Ohlander, Ann-Sofie & Strömberg, Ulla-Britt, Tusen svenska kvinnoår: svensk kvinnohistoria från vikingatid till nutid, 3. (A Thousand Swedish Women's Years: Swedish Women's History from the Viking Age until now), [omarb. och utök.] uppl., Norstedts akademiska förlag, Stockholm, 2008

^ a b c Ingelman-Sundberg, Catharina, Forntida kvinnor: jägare, vikingahustru, prästinna [Ancient women: hunters, viking wife, priestess], Prisma, Stockholm, 2004

^ Hedenstierna-Jonson, Charlotte; Kjellström, Anna; Zachrisson, Torun; Krzewińska, Maja; Sobrado, Veronica; Price, Neil; Günther, Torsten; Jakobsson, Mattias; Götherström, Anders; Storå, Jan (December 2017). "A female Viking warrior confirmed by genomics". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 164 (4): 853–860. doi:10.1002/ajpa.23308. PMC 5724682. PMID 28884802.

^ Clover, Carol J. (April 1993). "Regardless of Sex: Men, Women, and Power in Early Northern Europe". Speculum. 68 (2): 363–387. doi:10.2307/2864557. ISSN 0038-7134. JSTOR 2864557. S2CID 165868233.

^ Jesch, 13

^ Baten, Joerg; Maravall Buckwalter, Laura (2019). "Valkyries: Was Gender Equality High in the Scandinavian Periphery since Viking Times? Evidence from Enamel Hypoplasia and Height Ratios". Economics and Human Biology. 34: 181–193. doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2019.05.007. PMID 31208936. S2CID 190513459.

^ a b Hjardar, Kim. Vikings. Rosen Publishing, 2018. pp.37–41

^ a b c Sherrow, Victoria. Encyclopedia of Hair: A Cultural History. Greenwood Publishing, 2006. p.389

^ "Appearance – What did the Vikings look like?". National Museum of Denmark. Archived from the original on 2 May 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2015.

^ Caroline Ahlström Arcini "Eight Viking Age Burials", The Viking Age: A Time With Many Faces, Oxbow Books (2018), pp. 5.

^ C. Paterson, "The combs, ornaments, weights and coins", Cille Pheadair: A Norse Farmstead and Pictish Burial Cairn in South Uist. Mike Parker Pearson, Mark Brennand, Jacqui Mulville and Helen Smith. Oxbow Books (2018), p. 293.

^ Ashby, SP; Tomlinson, L; Presslee, S; Hendy, J; Bliss, A; Minter, F; Brock, D (2023). "The Portable Antiquities Scheme and the potential of non-metallic finds: A Viking Comb from Shotley, Suffolk". Internet Archaeology (61). doi:10.11141/ia.61.11.

^ Selwyn Kittredge, "Digging up Viking and Medieval Dublin", Archaeology, Vol.27, No. 2 (April 1974), pp. 134–36. Archaeological Institute of America.

^ Caroline Peterson, "A Tale of two cemeteries: Viking Burials at Cumwhitton and Carlisle, Cumbria", Crossing Boundaries: Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Art, Material Culture, Language and Literature of the Early Medieval World. Edited by, Eric Cambridge and Jane Hawkes. Oxbow Books (2017).

^ C. Paterson, "The combs, ornaments, weights and coins", Cille Pheadair: A Norse Farmstead and Pictish Burial Cairn in South Uist. Mike Parker Pearson, Mark Brennand, Jacqui Mulville and Helen Smith. Oxbow Books (2018).

^ Ibid, pp. 296.

^ Arcini, Caroline (2018). The Viking Age: A Time with Many Faces. Oxbow Books. ISBN 978-1-78570-941-8. Archived from the original on 11 February 2023. Retrieved 11 February 2023.

^ Sk. V. Gudjonsson (1941): Folkekost og sundhedsforhold i gamle dage. Belyst igennem den oldnordiske Litteratur. (Dvs. først og fremmest de islandske sagaer). København. (in Danish) Short description in English: Diet and health in previous times, as revealed in the Old Norse Literature, especially the Icelandic Sagas.

^ a b c Pernille Rohde Sloth, Ulla Lund Hansen & Sabine Karg (2013). "Viking Age garden plants from southern Scandinavia – diversity, taphonomy and cultural aspect" (PDF). Danish Journal of Archaeology. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 July 2014. Retrieved 19 June 2014.

^ This will cause a lactic acid fermentation process to occur.

^ "Forråd til vinteren – Salte, syrne, røge og tørre [Supplies for the winter – curing, fermenting, smoking and drying]". Ribe Vikingecenter (in Danish). Archived from the original on 7 September 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2015.

^ a b Roesdahl, p. 54

^ "Viking Food". National Museum of Denmark. Archived from the original on 28 April 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2015.

^ See the article on the Northern European short-tailed sheep for specific information. In southern Scandinavia (i.e. Denmark), the heath sheep of Lüneburger Heidschnucke was raised and kept.

^ "The animals on the farm – Genetic connection". Ribe Vikingecenter. Archived from the original on 19 April 2015. Retrieved 19 April 2015.

^ "Poultry". Danish Agricultural Museum. Archived from the original on 19 April 2015. Retrieved 19 April 2015.

^ O'Conner, Terry. 1999? "The Home – Food and Meat." Viking Age York. Jorvik Viking Centre.

^ Roesdahl pp. 102–17

^ Nedkvitne, Arnved. "Fishing, Whaling and Seal Hunting." in Pulsiano, Phillip (1993). Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia. Garland Reference Library of the Humanities.

^ Inge Bødker Enghoff (2013). "Hunting, fishing and animal husbandry at The Farm Beneath The Sand, Western Greenland". Man & Society. the Greenland National Museum, Dansk Polar Center. 28. ISBN 978-8763512602. Archived from the original on 21 April 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2014.

^ a b "A Viking Feast – an abundance of foods". Ribe Vikingecenter. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 19 June 2014.

^ Roesdahl, pp. 110–11

^ Fondén, R; Leporanta, K; Svensson, U (2007). "Chapter 7. Nordic/Scandinavian Fermented Milk Products". In Tamime, Adnan (ed.). Fermented Milks. Blackwell. doi:10.1002/9780470995501.ch7. ISBN 978-0632064588. Archived from the original on 14 April 2023. Retrieved 29 October 2020.

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^ "Scans of Viking Swords Reveal a Slice of Norse Culture". Live Science. Archived from the original on 14 April 2017. Retrieved 15 April 2017.

^ Fedrigo, Anna; Grazzi, Francesco; Williams, Alan R.; Panzner, Tobias; Lefmann, Kim; Lindelof, Poul Erik; Jørgensen, Lars; Pentz, Peter; Scherillo, Antonella (1 April 2017). "Extraction of archaeological information from metallic artefacts—A neutron diffraction study on Viking swords". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 12: 425–36. Bibcode:2017JArSR..12..425F. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.02.014.[permanent dead link]

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^ Robert Wernick. The Vikings. Alexandria VA: Time-Life Books. 1979. p. 285

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^ Howard D. Fabing. "On Going Berserk: A Neurochemical Inquiry." Scientific Monthly. 83 [Nov. 1956] p. 232

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^ Gareth Williams: Viking Money Archived 10 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine BBC History

^ Graham-Campbell, James: The Viking World, Frances Lincoln Ltd, London (2013). Maps of trade routes.

^ Williams, Gareth (17 February 2011). "BBC – History – Ancient History in depth: Viking Money". www.bbc.co.uk. BBC. Archived from the original on 26 December 2022. Retrieved 12 February 2023.

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^ a b c Vikings as traders Archived 28 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Teachers' notes 5. Royal Museums Greenwich

^ "Herbs, spices and vegetables in the Viking period". National Museum of Denmark. Archived from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2015.

^ Heidi Michelle Sherman (2008). Barbarians come to Market: The Emporia of Western Eurasia from 500 BC to AD 1000. pp. 250–55. ISBN 978-0549718161. Retrieved 24 February 2014.[permanent dead link]

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^ Glass and Amber Archived 4 June 2014 at the Wayback Machine Regia Anglorum. Sourced information and pictures.

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^ Marianne Vedeler: Silk for The Vikings Archived 7 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Oxbow 2014.

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^ English Historical Documents, c. 500–1042 by Dorothy Whitelock; p. 776

^ Derry (2012). A History of Scandinavia: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, p. 16.

^ Northern Shores by Alan Palmer; p. 21; ISBN 0-7195-6299-6

^ Wienberg, Jes (2015). "Vikings and the Western Frontier". In Larsson, Lars; Ekengren, Fredrik; Helgesson, Bertil (eds.). Small Things – Wide Horizons: Studies in honour of Birgitta Hårdh. Archaeopress Publishing Ltd. p. 290. ISBN 978-1-78491-132-4. Archived from the original on 11 February 2023. Retrieved 11 February 2023.

^ The Viking Revival By Professor Andrew Wawn at Archived 7 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine BBC

^ Sawyer, Peter; Sawyer, Professor of Medieval History Peter (1997). The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198205265. Retrieved 17 October 2015 – via Internet Archive.

^ Hall, pp. 220–21; Fitzhugh and Ward, pp. 362–64

^ Fitzhugh and Ward, p. 363

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^ Hall, p. 221

^ Gareth Lloyd Evans, "Michael Hirst's Vikings and Old Norse Poetry", Translating Early Medieval Poetry: Transformation, Reception, Interpretation. Edited by Tom Birkett and Kirsty March-Lyons. Boydell and Brewer (2017), p. 200.

^ Ibid, pp. 201202.

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^ Carol Clover, "Maiden Warriors and Other Sons" The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, Vol. 85, No. 1 (Jan. 1986), pp. 35–49. University of Illinois Press.

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^ Kristinn Schram, 'Banking on borealism: Eating, smelling, and performing the North', Iceland and images of the North, ed. Sumarliði R. Ísleifsson (Québec, 2011), pp. 305–27.

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^ Return of Dublin's Viking Warship Archived 18 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 14 November 2007.

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^ Frank, Roberta (2000). International Scandinavian and Medieval Studies in Memory of Gerd Wolfgang Weber. Ed. Parnaso. p. 487. ISBN 978-88-86474-28-3. Archived from the original on 13 April 2014. Retrieved 17 September 2017.

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^ "The Gjermundbu Find – The Chieftain Warrior". Archived from the original on 15 February 2014. Retrieved 10 April 2014.

^ Williams, G. (2001) How do we know about the Vikings? Archived 16 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine BBC.co.uk. Retrieved 14 November 2007.

^ By Magnús Óláfsson, in Ole Worm, Runar seu Danica Litteratura antiquissima, vulgo Gothica dicta (Copenhagen 1636).

^ E. W. Gordon, An Introduction to Old Norse (2nd edition, Oxford 1962) pp. lxix–lxx.

^ Helgason, A.; Hickey, E.; Goodacre, S.; Bosnes, V.; Stefánsson, K. R.; Ward, R.; Sykes, B. (2001). "MtDNA and the Islands of the North Atlantic: Estimating the Proportions of Norse and Gaelic Ancestry". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 68 (3): 723–37. doi:10.1086/318785. PMC 1274484. PMID 11179019.

^ Roger Highfield, "Vikings who chose a home in Shetland before a life of pillage" Archived 18 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Telegraph, 7 April 2005. Retrieved 16 November 2008

^ Bowden, G. R.; Balaresque, P.; King, T. E.; Hansen, Z.; Lee, A. C.; Pergl-Wilson, G.; Hurley, E.; Roberts, S. J.; Waite, P.; Jesch, J.; Jones, A. L.; Thomas, M. G.; Harding, S. E.; Jobling, M. A. (20 November 2007). "Excavating Past Population Structures by Surname-Based Sampling; The Genetic Legacy of the Vikings in Northwest England, Georgina R. Bowden, Molecular Biology and Evolution, 20 November 2007". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 25 (2): 301–09. doi:10.1093/molbev/msm255. PMC 2628767. PMID 18032405.

^ "A Y Chromosome Census of the British Isles, Capelli, Current Biology, Vol. 13, May 27, 2003" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 September 2012. Retrieved 21 May 2012.

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Bibliography

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Beard, David (2012). "The Term "Viking"". archeurope.com. Archaeology in Europe. Archived from the original on 7 April 2012. Retrieved 23 April 2014.

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Frantzen, Allen J (2012). Anglo-Saxon Keywords. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-25560-5.

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Hall, Richard (1990). Viking Age Archaeology in Britain and Ireland. Shire. ISBN 978-0747800637. Archived from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 17 October 2015.

Jesch, Judith (2015). The Viking Diaspora. Oxford: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-02079-5.

Jesch, Judith (2001). Ships and Men in the Late Viking Age: The Vocabulary of Runic Inscriptions and Skaldic Verse. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 0-85115-826-9.

Jesch, Judith (1991). Women in the Viking Age. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. ISBN 978-0-85115-360-5.

Lapidge, Michael; Blair, John; Keynes, Simon; Scragg, Donald, eds. (2001). The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England. London: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-22492-0.

Lindqvist, Thomas (2003). "Early Political Organisation: (a) An Introductory Survey". In Helle, Knut (ed.). The Cambridge History of Scandinavia: Prehistory to 1520. Cambridge University Press. pp. 160–67. ISBN 978-0521472999. Archived from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 17 October 2015.

Online Etymology Dictionary (2014). "Viking". Archived from the original on 7 September 2014. Retrieved 11 September 2021.

Price, Neil (2020). The Children of Ash and Elm: A History of the Vikings. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-241-28398-1.

Roesdahl, Else (1998). The Vikings. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0140252828.

Sawyer, Peter Hayes (1972). Age of the Vikings. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0312013653. Archived from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 17 October 2015.

Sawyer, Peter, ed. (1997). The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820526-5.

Williams, Gareth (2007). "Kingship, Christianity and coinage: monetary and political perspectives on silver economy in the Viking Age". In Graham-Campbell, James; Williams, Gareth (eds.). Silver Economy in the Viking Age. Left Coast Press. pp. 177–214. ISBN 978-1598742220. Archived from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 17 October 2015.

Wolf, Kirsten (2004). Daily Life of the Vikings. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-313-32269-3.

Further reading

Askeberg, Fritz (1944). Norden och kontinenten i gammal tid: studier i forngermansk kulturhistoria. Almqvist & Wiksells boktr. Archived from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 17 October 2015.

Blanck, Dag. "The Transnational Viking: The Role of the Viking in Sweden, the United States, and Swedish America." Journal of Transnational American Studies 7.1 (2016). online Archived 5 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine

Downham, Clare (2007). Viking kings of Britain and Ireland: the dynasty of ́Ívarr to A.D. 1014. Dunedin Academic Press. ISBN 978-1903765890. Archived from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 17 October 2015.

Downham, Clare (January 2012). "Viking Ethnicities: A Historiographic Overview" (PDF). History Compass. 10 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1111/J.1478-0542.2011.00820.X. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 August 2022. Retrieved 17 September 2022.

Hadley, Dawn (2006). The Vikings in England: Settlement, Society and Culture. Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0719059827. Archived from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 17 October 2015.

Heen-Pettersen, Aina Margrethe (2014). "Insular artefacts from Viking-Age burials from mid-Norway. A review of contact between Trøndelag and Britain and Ireland". Internet Archaeology (38). doi:10.11141/ia.38.2. hdl:11250/2385823. Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 17 September 2022.

Heide, Eldar (2005). "Víking – 'rower shifting'? An etymological contribution" (PDF). Arkiv för nordisk filologi. Vol. 120. C.W.K. Gleerup. pp. 41–54. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 16 June 2014.

Heide, Eldar (2008). "Viking, week, and Widsith. A reply to Harald Bjorvand" (PDF). Arkiv för nordisk filologi. Vol. 123. C.W.K. Gleerup. pp. 23–28. Archived from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 17 October 2015.

Hodges, Richard (2006). Goodbye to the Vikings: Re-Reading Early Medieval Archaeology. Gerald Duckworth & Company Limited. ISBN 978-0715634295. Archived from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 17 October 2015.

Melleno, Daniel (2014). Before They Were Vikings: Scandinavia and the Franks up to the death of Louis the Pious. UC Berkeley. Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 17 September 2022.. online Archived 16 October 2022 at the Wayback Machine

Svanberg, Fredrik (2003). Decolonizing the Viking Age. Almqvist & Wiksell International. ISBN 978-9122020066. Archived from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 17 October 2015.

Wamers, Egon (1985). Insularer Metallschmuck in wikingerzeitlichen Gräbern Nordeuropas. Untersuchungen zur skandinavischen Westexpansion. Neumünster: Karl Wachholtz. ISBN 978-3529011566.

Wamers, Egon (1998). "Insular Finds in Viking Age Scandinavia and the State Formation of Norway". In Clarke, H.B.; Mhaonaigh, M. Ní; Floinn, R. Ó. (eds.). Ireland and Scandinavia in the Early Viking Age. Dublin: Four Courts Press. pp. 37–72. ISBN 978-1851822355.

Wawn, M.A. (2000). The Vikings and the Victorians: Inventing the Old North in Nineteenth Century Britain. Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer. ISBN 978-0859916448.

External links

Look up Viking in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vikings.

Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Vikings and the Old Norse.

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Northmen

Vikings – View videos at The History Channel

Copenhagen-Portal – The Danish Vikings

BBC: History of Vikings

Borg Viking museum, Norway

Ibn Fadlan and the Rusiyyah, by James E. Montgomery, with full translation of Ibn Fadlan

Reassessing what we collect website – Viking and Danish London History of Viking and Danish London with objects and images

Wawm, Andrew, The Viking Revival – BBC Online, Ancient History in Depth (updated 17 February 2011)

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vteRunestonesWestern route and unspecified expeditions abroad

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Nä 29, U 158, U 258, U 605, U 614, 699, U 925, U 948, U 954, 1028, U 1048, Sö 16, Sö 47, Sö 49, Sö 174, Sö 333, Sö 360, Vg 40, Vg 81, Sm 48, G 207, DR 259, DR 330, N 239

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Viking Age womenVs 24, U 15, U 337, U 455, U 489, U 861, Sr 139, Vg 67, N 68, N 225, DR 55, DR 114, DR 143

Gerlög and Inga: Färentuna Runestones, Hillersjö stone, Snottsta and Vreta stones

Estrid: Broby bro Runestones, Hargs bro runic inscriptions, Uppland Rune Inscriptions 101, 143 and 147Norse mythology andOld Norse religion

"May Thor hallow": Vg 150, Sö 140 (?), DR 110, DR 209, DR 220Thor's hammer: U 1161, Vg 113, Sö 86, Sö 111, DR 26, DR 48, DR 120Cursed stones: Vg 67, DR 81, DR 83, DR 209, DR 230, DR 338, DR 357, DR 360Other: Sö 154, Ög 136, Ög 181, Öl 1, Vg 63, Vg 119, Thorwald's Cross

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Vikings - History, Origins & Tactics | HISTORY

ngs - History, Origins & Tactics | HISTORYShowsThis Day In HistoryScheduleTopicsStoriesHistory ClassicsLive TVYour ProfileYour ProfileHistoryFind History on Facebook (Opens in a new window)Find History on Twitter (Opens in a new window)Find History on YouTube (Opens in a new window)Find History on Instagram (Opens in a new window)Find History on TikTok (Opens in a new window)Email UpdatesLive TVHistory ClassicsShowsThis Day In HistoryScheduleTopicsStoriesVideosHistory PodcastsHistory VaultShopHomeTopicsExplorationVikingsVikingsBy: History.com EditorsUpdated: May 18, 2023 | Original: November 4, 2009copy page linkPrint PageGetty ImagesTable of ContentsWho Were the Vikings? Early Viking Raids Conquests in the British Isles Viking Settlements: Europe and Beyond Danish Dominance End of the Viking Age From around A.D. 800 to the 11th century, a vast number of Scandinavians left their homelands to seek their fortunes elsewhere. These seafaring warriors–known collectively as Vikings or Norsemen (“Northmen”)–began by raiding coastal sites, especially undefended monasteries, in the British Isles. Over the next three centuries, they would leave their mark as pirates, raiders, traders and settlers on much of Britain and the European continent, as well as parts of modern-day Russia, Iceland, Greenland and Newfoundland.Who Were the Vikings? Contrary to some popular conceptions of the Vikings, they were not a “race” linked by ties of common ancestry or patriotism, and could not be defined by any particular sense of “Viking-ness.” Most of the Vikings whose activities are best known come from the areas now known as Denmark, Norway and Sweden, though there are mentions in historical records of Finnish, Estonian and Saami Vikings as well. Their common ground–and what made them different from the European peoples they confronted–was that they came from a foreign land, they were not “civilized” in the local understanding of the word and–most importantly–they were not Christian.Life of a VikingThe exact reasons for Vikings venturing out from their homeland are uncertain; some have suggested it was due to overpopulation of their homeland, but the earliest Vikings were looking for riches, not land. In the eighth century A.D., Europe was growing richer, fueling the growth of trading centers such as Dorestad and Quentovic on the Continent and Hamwic (now Southampton), London, Ipswich and York in England. Scandinavian furs were highly prized in the new trading markets; from their trade with the Europeans, Scandinavians learned about new sailing technology as well as about the growing wealth and accompanying inner conflicts between European kingdoms. The Viking predecessors–pirates who preyed on merchant ships in the Baltic Sea–would use this knowledge to expand their fortune-seeking activities into the North Sea and beyond.Early Viking Raids Viking ShipsIn A.D. 793, an attack on the Lindisfarne monastery off the coast of Northumberland in northeastern England marked the beginning of the Viking Age. The culprits–probably Norwegians who sailed directly across the North Sea–did not destroy the monastery completely, but the attack shook the European religious world to its core. Unlike other groups, these strange new invaders had no respect for religious institutions such as the monasteries, which were often left unguarded and vulnerable near the shore. Two years later, Viking raids struck the undefended island monasteries of Skye and Iona (in the Hebrides) as well as Rathlin (off the northeast coast of Ireland). The first recorded raid in continental Europe came in 799, at the island monastery of St Philibert’s on Noirmoutier, near the estuary of the Loire River.For several decades, the Vikings confined themselves to hit-and-run raids against coastal targets in the British Isles (particularly Ireland) and Europe (the trading center of Dorestad, 80 kilometers from the North Sea, became a frequent target after 830). They then took advantage of internal conflicts in Europe to extend their activity further inland: after the death of Louis the Pious, emperor of Frankia (modern-day France and Germany), in 840, his son Lothar actually invited the support of a Viking fleet in a power struggle with brothers. Before long other Vikings realized that Frankish rulers were willing to pay them rich sums to prevent them from attacking their subjects, making Frankia an irresistible target for further Viking activity.Did you know? The name Viking came from the Scandinavians themselves, from the Old Norse word "vik" (bay or creek) which formed the root of "vikingr" (pirate).Conquests in the British Isles By the mid-ninth century, Ireland, Scotland and England had become major targets for Viking settlement as well as raids. Vikings gained control of the Northern Isles of Scotland (Shetland and the Orkneys), the Hebrides and much of mainland Scotland. They founded Ireland’s first trading towns: Dublin, Waterford, Wexford, Wicklow and Limerick, and used their base on the Irish coast to launch attacks within Ireland and across the Irish Sea to England. When King Charles the Bald began defending West Frankia more energetically in 862, fortifying towns, abbeys, rivers and coastal areas, Viking forces began to concentrate more on England than Frankia.In the wave of Viking attacks in England after 851, only one kingdom–Wessex–was able to successfully resist. Viking armies (mostly Danish) conquered East Anglia and Northumberland and dismantled Mercia, while in 871 King Alfred the Great of Wessex became the only king to decisively defeat a Danish army in England. Leaving Wessex, the Danes settled to the north, in an area known as “Danelaw.” Many of them became farmers and traders and established York as a leading mercantile city. In the first half of the 10th century, English armies led by the descendants of Alfred of Wessex began reconquering Scandinavian areas of England; the last Scandinavian king, Erik Bloodaxe, was expelled and killed around 952, permanently uniting English into one kingdom.Viking Settlements: Europe and Beyond Meanwhile, Viking armies remained active on the European continent throughout the ninth century, brutally sacking Nantes (on the French coast) in 842 and attacking towns as far inland as Paris, Limoges, Orleans, Tours and Nimes. In 844, Vikings stormed Seville (then controlled by the Arabs); in 859, they plundered Pisa, though an Arab fleet battered them on the way back north. In 911, the West Frankish king granted Rouen and the surrounding territory by treaty to a Viking chief called Rollo in exchange for the latter’s denying passage to the Seine to other raiders. This region of northern France is now known as Normandy, or “land of the Northmen.”In the ninth century, Scandinavians (mainly Norwegians) began to colonize Iceland, an island in the North Atlantic where no one had yet settled in large numbers. By the late 10th century, some Vikings (including the famous Erik the Red) moved even further westward, to Greenland. According to later Icelandic histories, some of the early Viking settlers in Greenland (supposedly led by the Viking hero Leif Eriksson, son of Erik the Red) may have become the first Europeans to discover and explore North America. Calling their landing place Vinland (Wine-land), they built a temporary settlement at L’Anse aux Meadows in modern-day Newfoundland. Beyond that, there is little evidence of Viking presence in the New World, and they didn’t form permanent settlements.Danish Dominance The mid-10th-century reign of Harald Bluetooth as king of a newly unified, powerful and Christianized Denmark marked the beginning of a second Viking age. Large-scale raids, often organized by royal leaders, hit the coasts of Europe and especially England, where the line of kings descended from Alfred the Great was faltering. Harald’s rebellious son, Sven Forkbeard, led Viking raids on England beginning in 991 and conquered the entire kingdom in 1013, sending King Ethelred into exile. Sven died the following year, leaving his son Knut (or Canute) to rule a Scandinavian empire (comprising England, Denmark, and Norway) on the North Sea.After Knut’s death, his two sons succeeded him, but both were dead by 1042 and Edward the Confessor, son of the previous (non-Danish) king, returned from exile and regained the English throne from the Danes. Upon his death (without heirs) in 1066, Harold Godwinesson, the son of Edward’s most powerful noble, laid claim to the throne. Harold’s army was able to defeat an invasion led by the last great Viking king–Harald Hardrada of Norway–at Stamford Bridge, near York, but fell to the forces of William, Duke of Normandy (himself a descendant of Scandinavian settlers in northern France) just weeks later. Crowned king of England on Christmas Day in 1066, William managed to retain the crown against further Danish challenges.End of the Viking Age The events of 1066 in England effectively marked the end of the Viking Age. By that time, all of the Scandinavian kingdoms were Christian, and what remained of Viking “culture” was being absorbed into the culture of Christian Europe. Today, signs of the Viking legacy can be found mostly in the Scandinavian origins of some vocabulary and place-names in the areas in which they settled, including northern England, Scotland and Russia. In Iceland, the Vikings left an extensive body of literature, the Icelandic sagas, in which they celebrated the greatest victories of their glorious past.By: History.com EditorsHISTORY.com works with a wide range of writers and editors to create accurate and informative content. All articles are regularly reviewed and updated by the HISTORY.com team. Articles with the “HISTORY.com Editors” byline have been written or edited by the HISTORY.com editors, including Amanda Onion, Missy Sullivan, Matt Mullen and Christian Zapata.

Citation InformationArticle TitleVikingsAuthorHistory.com EditorsWebsite NameHISTORYURLhttps://www.history.com/topics/exploration/vikings-historyDate AccessedMarch 12, 2024PublisherA&E Television NetworksLast UpdatedMay 18, 2023Original Published DateNovember 4, 2009Fact CheckWe strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.Print PageSign up for Inside HistoryGet HISTORY’s most fascinating stories delivered to your inbox three times a week.Sign UpBy submitting your information, you agree to receive emails from HISTORY and A+E Networks. You can opt out at any time. You must be 16 years or older and a resident of the United States.More details: Privacy Notice | Terms of Use | Contact UsA+E NetworksOur Family of BrandsHistory EducationHistory VaultMobile/AppsNewsShopShare Your OpinionFollow Historydepm+BiographyCrime and InvestigationHistory en EspanolLRWMilitary HistoryAd ChoicesAdvertise With UsAccessibility SupportCopyright PolicyCorporate InformationEmployment OpportunitiesFAQ/Contact UsPrivacy NoticeCookie NoticeTerms Of UseTV Parental GuidelinesContact UsCopyright PolicyPrivacy PolicyTerms of UseAd ChoicesAccessibility Support© 2024, A&E Television Networks, LLC. All Rights Reserv

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Viking中文(简体)翻译:剑桥词典

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Vikingnoun [ C ] uk

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a person belonging to a race of Scandinavian people who travelled by sea and attacked parts of northern and southern Europe between the 8th and the 11th centuries, often staying to live in places they travelled to

北欧海盗,维金人(斯堪的纳维亚人的一支,在8至11世纪间曾劫掠北欧和南欧)

(Viking在剑桥英语-中文(简体)词典的翻译 © Cambridge University Press)

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Viking的翻译

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北歐海盜,維金人(斯堪的納維亞人的一支,在8至11世紀間曾劫掠北歐和南歐)…

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維京人 - 维基百科,自由的百科全书

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系列条目斯堪的纳维亚

地理

山脈

半島

維京時代

維京時代

古諾斯語

瓦良格人

維京人

北欧神话

基督教化(英语:Christianization of Scandinavia)

政治實體

卡尔马联盟

丹麥-挪威

瑞典–挪威

瑞属芬兰

歷史

格陵兰

丹麥(法罗群岛)

芬蘭(奥兰群岛)

挪威

瑞典

冰島

其他

北日耳曼语支

泛斯堪的納維亞主義

北歐理事會

货币联盟/防卫同盟

联赛/使馆/航空公司

查论编

丹麥海員,於11世紀中繪畫。

维京人(古諾斯語:víkingr)是诺斯人(意即“北方人”,现在則稱为斯堪的納维亚人)在北歐區域的一支,主要由探险家、狂戰士、商人、水手、海盗、巫師和工匠組成一類族群集合體[1][2]。他們來源於現代的挪威中部和南部、丹麦全境以及瑞典中部和南部,在北歐尚未形成“國家”的概念之前就以一個鬆散的部落聯盟的形式存在,並非是統一的國家或民族。

從公元8世纪到11世纪,他們侵扰并殖民了大部分欧洲沿海,如法國的諾曼底、西西里島及南意大利、拉脫維亞全境、芬蘭南部和西部等诸多區域,其中尤以英格蘭的丹麥王朝和烏克蘭的基輔羅斯最具代表性,甚至影響了英國及俄國後來的歷史進程,維京人的足跡還遍及了北极乃至北美洲東部,形成一片广阔的內海疆域。

在欧洲歷史上,这一时期被称为“维京时期”,這給歐洲各國都帶來了深遠的影響。維京人的造船術、建築學、重型進攻武器、北歐神話體系、針織花紋和卢恩符文占卜的造詣處於欧洲的顶尖位置,帶動歐洲其它國家在這些技術上的發展;但是,其防禦型武器、狩獵、禮服體系、社交文化、飲酒習俗、文學和奢侈工藝品與同时期的欧洲相比較又為原始野蛮,反而受到歐洲基督教-日耳曼文明的同化,是偏科非常嚴重的文化族群。在維京人在接受基督教之後,大多數文化逐漸被歐洲人同化,但其宗教、建築、節日、飲食文化並未完全消失,而是在日常生活中和歐洲人的主流形式融合,雖然喪失了一些自己的原貌,但是其後代——北歐的維京人三國(丹麦、瑞典、挪威)至今仍然保有大量有别于其它基督教欧洲国家的独特文化遺產。

因為維京人的特殊文化遺產,故在現代的電影藝術和電子遊戲中經常能發現這類族群的身影。

名稱解釋及形成背景[编辑]

這段時間北歐的軍事、貿易及人口擴張是斯堪的納维亚、不列顛群島、西西里、俄羅斯及歐洲其他地區中古時期歷史的一個重要元素[3]。在英语中,维京人这个词是从18世纪的传奇故事中引入的,有一种说法认为可能是来源于古代北欧人的古北欧语语言,“vik”意思是“海湾”,“ing”意思是“从……来”,加起来“维京”意思是在海湾中从事某种事,“vikingr”是在海湾中从事这种事的人。另一种说法认为是来源于古英语“wíc”意思是“进行贸易的城市”,因为后来部分维京人定居到不列颠岛,并和当地人进行贸易。他们在公元800到1070年处于统治地位,对海上交通构成威胁。“vikingr”这个词曾经出现在斯堪的纳维亚半岛的古代盧恩文石碑上面,在冰岛的土语中也意味着“海上冒险”。在英语中“wicing”这个词首先出现在6世纪的古代盎格罗-撒克逊的诗歌中,意思就是海盗,但当时英国人并没有将北欧海盗称为维京。在中古英语中“维京”这个词已经消失了,但18世纪时又重新出现在传奇故事中,到了20世纪,“维京”不仅指海盗,意义扩展为指斯堪的纳维亚人,并出现许多新词如:“维京时代”、“维京文化”、“维京殖民地”等。由于后来斯堪的纳维亚人沿着芬兰、俄罗斯平原的河流从事商业活动直到东罗马帝国,并在河流沿岸设立殖民地定居,所以后来将来自斯堪的纳维亚的商人也称作维京,北美洲的斯堪的纳维亚人也被说英语的人称为维京。实际上并不是所有斯堪的纳维亚人都是海盗,他们和其他地区的欧洲人一样也是农民、渔夫和猎人,他们为了防止海盗入侵也成立了舰队,将所有的斯堪的纳维亚人都称为维京会造成混淆。

历史[编辑]

最早见于记载的维京海盗,是记录在《盎格魯-撒克遜編年史》中的公元789年,一次对英国的袭击:当时这些海盗被英国官员误认是商人,官员要向他们徵税,海盗只好杀死官员。第二次是在公元793年。以后200年间,维京不断地侵扰欧洲沿海,沿着河流向上游内地劫掠,曾经控制东欧平原和波罗的海沿岸。据说他们曾远达地中海和里海沿岸。其中的一支渡过波罗的海,并远征诺夫哥罗德,到达基辅和伏爾加保加利亞,并建立基辅罗斯。有些船队远航至里海,前往大伊朗、美索不达米亚和阿拉伯人做生意。而更为著名的一支维京人沿着西欧的大西洋沿岸向南挺进,在欧洲的心脏地带掀起轩然大波。他们大肆劫掠大不列颠岛,并且还向西欧进行了侵扰。维京(Vikings)一词便带有掠夺、杀戮等意思。维京人对于欧洲历史尤其是英格兰和法兰西的历史进程产生过深远影响。

11世纪时的日耳曼人历史学家不来梅的亚当曾在他的著作《汉堡大主教史》第四卷中记载过:“海盗们在西兰岛聚集了大量的黄金,这些海盗被他们自己人称为维京,我们称他们为阿斯考曼尼,他们向丹麦国王纳贡”。

13世纪时,挪威国王哈罗德一世下决心要将这些海盗从苏格兰及附近岛屿清除出去[來源請求],部分维京人逃到冰岛。北欧的传说将他们描绘成无畏的英雄,但到了18世纪的传奇中又把他们描绘成强盗。其他欧洲人认为是斯堪的纳维亚农民业余去做海盗,但斯堪的纳维亚人认为可能这些人只是非法的强盗。

維京時代[编辑]

主条目:維京時代

九世紀初期的歐洲

維京人的航行與領土

北方日耳曼人從公元790年開始擴張,直到公元1066年丹麥人的後裔征服英格蘭,一般稱之為“維京時代”[4],是歐洲古典时代和中世紀之間的過渡時期。維京人是著名的航海家,他們在昔德蘭群島、法羅群島、冰島、格陵蘭島,都設立了殖民地,在10世紀末曾不定期地在美洲紐芬蘭居住過。他们不僅是海盗,也同時進行貿易,甚至定居在歐洲沿海和河流兩岸。

有記錄說公元839年他们曾作為东罗马帝國的雇傭兵而征战北非。他們的殖民地遍布歐洲,包括英格蘭的丹麥区、基輔羅斯、法國的諾曼第等等。只是到了維京時代的末期,北歐才出現獨立的國家和國王,同時也接納了基督教,开始进入中世纪。東羅馬以及西亞回教諸國等地中海東岸國家因國勢較強,維京人在此處的擴張比較受挫,坎尼戰役甚至遭受東羅馬毀滅性打擊而被迫延後在義大利的霸業。而西歐諸國由於長期藩鎮割據致使維京人得以大肆擴張,直到中世紀中期西歐各国因為強化王權或都市同盟勢力抬頭後國勢日盛,才比較有能力抵抗维京海盗。隨後在漢撒同盟、威尼斯等諸多新興海軍強國打擊下,维京人靠搶掠而創立的霸業方才逐漸消亡。

維京人在美洲[编辑]

主条目:文蘭 (紐芬蘭)和維京人殖民北美

維京人萊夫·埃里克松早在哥倫布發現新大陸前五百多年就已登陸了美洲。據推測,他們是在到達格陵蘭岛後,再向西行,才抵達今天加拿大的纽芬兰及巴芬岛。他們在那裡發現了許多有用的物資,包括木材、葡萄、毛皮等,不過他們在美洲大陸只待了大約十年之久,就離開了這個物產豐盛的大陸,而原因可能是因為美洲原住民。

考古學之前發現,加拿大紐芬蘭的蘭塞奧茲牧草地上,有8座木造建築遺址,是維京人曾駐足此地[5],但發現當時的科學研究能力有限,無法得知維京人確切抵達的日期[6]。2021年10月,荷蘭格羅寧根大學學者在科學期刊《自然》發布學術研究結果[7],木造遺址是維京人在西元1021年所建。巧合的是,建築時間與科學證實日期,恰巧相距10個世紀。

該大學在研究中以科學方式,利用宇宙射線在樹木年輪中形成的放射性特殊碳訊號,得到公元1021年維京人在紐芬蘭建造木屋的證據。研究者發現公元992年曾有大規模太陽風暴,而遺址中的木材經科技驗證:在該年太陽風暴造成特殊年輪後,繼續形成有29圈的年輪,代表遺址中的該批木材是在1021年被砍伐。此研究克服先前對於年份估計的不精確性,為歐洲人登陸美洲的歷史奠定了標竿,對於後續有關維京的歷史研究,例如:知識轉移、遺傳資訊、動物遷徙和病理學交換,有很大的意義[8]。

貿易[编辑]

維京貿易商用的秤和砝碼,用在測量銀,有時也拿來測量金,來自锡格蒂纳箱(英语:Sigtuna box)

維京人和當時已知的世界建立了廣泛的貿易網絡,對歐洲及斯堪的纳维亚半岛的經濟發展有一定程度的影響[9][10]。

維京世界不太使用金錢,只有像里伯及赫德比(英语:Hedeby)之類的貿易中心才會使用,其經濟稱為金銀塊(英语:bullion)經濟。當時交易最常用到的金屬是銀,有時也會使用金作為交易媒介。銀是用銀棒或是錠(英语:ingots)的方式流通,也有用首飾或是珠寶的形式流通。貿易商會帶著小的秤,可以精準的量測重量,因此雖然沒有一般的貨幣,但可能已有非常精準的貿易系統。

维京人的船[编辑]

主条目:維京长船

维京人的船是维京文化中重要的组成部分,可以说维京人的一切都与他们的船有密切联系。维京船制造的材料主要取自高大笔直的橡树。维京船分为战船和货船两类。战船较轻,船窄,灵活轻便,又很耐风浪;而货船的船身又高又宽,船体也很重,在波涛汹涌的大海中载重航行时可保持稳定。两类船都有通常所说的弯曲船首,用一整块完整的橡木精雕细刻而成。

维京长船由于吃水浅,速度快,转向灵活,十分适合远征异地时突袭式的掠夺活动。但由于维京战船甲板是露天的,因此無法挡风遮雨。风雨和巨浪仍然使维京人又冷又湿,冻死人和夜晚被巨浪卷下海淹死都是很常见的事。由此可见,维京人的这种穿越大海的征服行动无疑必须具有无比的勇气和坚定的毅力,在取得胜利之前首先要忍受极大的痛苦。因此维京人这个名词从中世纪强烈的贬义到了今天又带有勇气的含义[11]。

维京戰士[编辑]

維京人的軍事上存在一些罕見於其他民族的兵種。[12][需要較佳来源]

狂戰士[编辑]

狂戰士帶著打死不退的精神與敵人廝殺,他們自認有「奧丁的庇護」而勇往直前無所畏懼。其形象常與狼、熊等元素掛上關聯,如其英文「berserker」即為北歐語的字根「ber」(熊)加上「sekr」(上衣)組成。

狂戰士隨著基督教在斯堪地那維亞的擴張而有所衰退。教會視其為「狂亂的心靈」,並將強盜、野蠻等形象加諸在狂戰士身上,使其被排擠出主流社會。此外,法律也將其「狂暴」視為罪刑,並施以監禁、流放等懲罰,這些種種因素使得狂戰士逐漸淡出了歷史。

騎馬戰士[编辑]

傳統上維京人的戰鬥配置中並沒有騎兵,因為馬匹在斯堪地那維亞為罕見動物,地形破碎的斯堪地那維亞出產的馬也不是優良的戰馬,所以配有坐騎的人只為了彰顯自己的身分地位,通常是國王、伯爵、指揮官等戰場上的重要人物。

維京時代的後期,丹麥王室將騎兵編入了親衛隊當中,這可能是模仿法蘭克人或諾曼人的騎士制度,但馬只是交通工具,且維京人不諳馬術與馬戰,皆以下馬作戰為主。

傭兵[编辑]

維京傭兵團盛行於十世紀至十一世紀初,他們受雇於法蘭克人、盎格魯-薩克遜人、西班牙人、東歐各民族等勢力。雇用者除了給予金錢報酬之外,為了避免傭兵團見利忘義而倒戈,也可能給予土地等等無法帶走的獎勵,使得傭兵無法輕易背棄他們之間的雇約。

瓦蘭吉衛士團[编辑]

瓦蘭吉衛隊為拜占庭的菁英親衛隊(為維京傭兵團的一種)。領軍者則仍是拜占庭人。

拜占庭帝國和羅斯公國在西元860年簽訂了和約,使得拜占庭帝國可在公國內雇用士兵作為自己的部隊,而這個被雇用的士兵包含了當時在基輔流浪的維京傭兵。西元911年時,約有七百名「瓦蘭吉人」於拜占庭從軍。十世紀時,巴西尔二世將此兵團擴充至六千人左右,並用其東征西討。之後因戰死、退役、預算收縮等因素,衛士團數量逐漸縮編至三千人以下。

瓦蘭吉衛隊的標準配備為一頂頭盔、一件鎖子甲,並手持一把雙手巨斧。

传说[编辑]

有角的头盔[编辑]

Magnus Barelegs的維京節,其中的头盔上沒有角

传说中维京人戴着有角的头盔。除了兩三個儀式中用的的头盔外(上面可能是象徵烏鴉、蛇或牛角的突起物),沒有證據說明维京人會戴角盔(英语:Horned helmet)[13]。正式、近距離的维京戰鬥(可能是在屏蔽牆或是在艦島上)中,戴著角盔很麻煩,甚至會造成戰友的危險。

歷史學家相信維京戰士不會戴角盔,不過不確定是否會在其他儀式使用。有關維京戰士戴角盔的誤解可能是來自19世紀的Geatish社群(英语:Geatish Society)愛好者,Geatish社群在1811年於斯德哥爾摩成立,提倡用北歐神話作為一些高雅藝術的主題。這種有關维京人戴有角的头盔的印象也可能是來自理查·華格納1876年的劇作《尼伯龍根的指環》[14]。

維京人常會用有翼的頭盔和古典時代的服裝來加以描繪,特別是那些北歐諸神的服裝,其目的是將維京人和他們的神話連在一起,這是歐洲文化中常見的理想化。

後來民族浪漫主义創造的迷思將維京人和二千多年前的北歐銅器時代(英语:Nordic Bronze Age)混為一談。北歐銅器時代的岩刻上有出現過角盔,也有在考古的物品中發現過(例如布胡斯及Veksø(英语:Veksø)的頭盔),可能是用在禮儀上的用途[15]。

像《Hägar the Horrible(英语:Hägar the Horrible)》和《北海小英雄》等卡通,以及明尼蘇達維京人和坎培拉奇襲隊(英语:Canberra Raiders)的圖案中,仍沿用了维京人戴着角盔這個被誤解的概念,可能也造成此一迷思的傳播[16]。

維京人的頭盔是硬皮革製的圓錐形物體,在正規部隊中會木頭及金屬加以強化。鐵質且有面具的頭盔是首領用的,是以中瑞典以往在文德爾(英语:Vendel)的頭盔為基礎。唯一真正的維京人頭盔是在挪威的Gjermundbu發現的,是鐵製的頭盔,年代可以追溯到第十世紀[17]。

其他[编辑]

传说中维京人浑身肮脏,蓬乱的长头发和大胡子混在一起,用人的头盖骨作酒碗。实际古代北欧语言中skal意思是酒碗,被不正确地翻译成拉丁语的“头盖骨”;当时维京人喜好清洁在历史上是有记载的。

傳說維京人身材是很高大。有現代學者對此進行過研究,研究指出當時的維京人身高大約是168.4公分至174公分。與現代人比起來,維京人的身材不算是很高,但跟當時的人相比,維京人的確是比較高。

維京人很乾淨,非常在乎他們的外表和良好的衛生習慣。與普遍的看法相反,他們經常洗澡,遠遠超過中世紀後期的人口。星期六的古挪威語單詞是Laugardagr,即洗滌日。907年,一群瑞典維京人在黑海與拜占庭帝國之間簽訂和平條約的要求之一是斯堪的納維亞人應該可「隨心所欲」地進入拜占庭人的公共浴池。

社會[编辑]

維京人的社會分為三個社會經濟階層;奴隸、農場工人(自由農民)和伯爵。

奴隸是社會中最底層的階級,是社會的重要組成部分,負責執行日常任務和進行大型建築專案,但他們也從事貿易和經濟活動。奴隸還被用作農場的工人和伯爵的大家庭僕人和勞工,他們被用來建造防禦工事、坡道、運河、墳墓、道路和類似的艱苦勞動。根據帝國遷徙的記載,奴隸被鄙視和看不起,新的奴隸是由現有奴隸的兒女獲得的,或者是通過在其他土地上掠奪獲得的,奴隸或出售給穆斯林,以換取阿拉伯白銀。

自由農民。他們擁有自己的農場、土地和牛群,他們每天從事農業工作,耕田,擠奶,建造房屋和馬車,但他們也經常有奴隸來維持生計。

伯爵是維京社會的貴族。他們很富有,擁有大農場和巨大的長屋,有馬和許多奴隸。奴隸或僕人負責大部分日常工作,而伯爵則從事行政、政治、狩獵、拜訪其他伯爵或出國探險。當伯爵去世並被埋葬時,他的私人奴隸有時會被殺死並與他一起埋葬,正如一些考古發掘所顯示的那樣。

参见[编辑]

维京长船

維京雄獅

著名維京人列表

以維京人為背景的作品列表

原始諾爾斯語

如尼石刻

注释[编辑]

^ Roesdahl, Else. The Vikings. Penguin Books. 1998: 9-22 [2014-07-13]. ISBN 9780140252828. (原始内容存档于2014-07-18). 

^ Viking (people). Encyclopedia Brittanica. [2014-07-13]. (原始内容存档于2014-10-06). 

^ Brink, Stefan. Who were the Vikings?. Brink, Stefan; Price, Neil (编). The Viking World. Routledge. 2008: 4–10. ISBN 9780415692625. 

^ Peter Sawyer, The Viking Expansion, The Cambridge History of Scandinavia, Issue 1 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) (Knut Helle, ed., 2003), p.105.

^ Wallace, B. L. in Contact, Continuity, and Collapse: the Norse Colonization of the North Atlantic (ed. Barrett, J.) 207–238 (Brepols, 2003).

^ Dee, M. W. & Kuitems, M. Duration of activity inestimable due to imprecision of the data. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 116, 22907 (2019).

^ Kuitems, M., Wallace, B.L., Lindsay, C. et al. Evidence for European presence in the Americas in AD 1021. Nature (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03972-8

^ Mühlemann, B. et al. Diverse variola virus (smallpox) strains were widespread in northern Europe in the Viking Age. Science 369, 6502 (2020).

^ Gareth Williams: Viking Money (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) BBC History

^ Graham­-Campbell, James: The Viking World, Frances Lincoln Ltd, London (2013). Maps of trade routes.

^ 白海军《海上大征服》第十二章,东方中心出版社

^ 維京人傳奇 第四章, 楓樹林出版社

^ Kahn, Charles. World History: Societies of the Past. Portage & Main Press. 2005: 9 [March 18, 2011]. ISBN 978-1-55379-045-7. 

^ Frank, F. The Invention of the Viking Horned Helmet. International Scandinavian and Medieval Studies in Memory of Gerd Wolfgang Weber. 2000. (原始内容存档于2014-04-13). 

^ Did Vikings really wear horns on their helmets? (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), The Straight Dope, 7 December 2004. Retrieved 14 November 2007.

^ Did Vikings wear horned helmets?. The Economist. www.economist.com. [10 April 2014]. (原始内容存档于2014-08-30). 

^ The Gjermundbu Find - The Chieftain Warrior. [10 April 2014]. (原始内容存档于2014-02-15). 

參考資料[编辑]

Brink, Stefan. Who were the Vikings?. Brink, Stefan; Price, Neil (编). The Viking World. Routledge. 2008: 4–10. ISBN 9780415692625. 

Roesdahl, Else. The Vikings. Penguin Books. 1998 [2014-07-13]. ISBN 9780140252828. (原始内容存档于2014-07-18). 

Konstam, Angus. 特殊兵種. Viking Warrior Operations Manual: The life, equipment, weapons and fighting tactics of the Vikings. Haynes Publishing UK. 2018: 122-127. ISBN 9781785211737. 

外部链接[编辑]

查看维基词典中的词条「Viking」。

维基共享资源上的相关多媒体资源:維京人

维基文库中相关的原始文献:Northmen

Vikings—View videos at The History Channel

Copenhagen-Portal – The Danish Vikings (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)

BBC: History of Vikings (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)

Encyclopædia Britannica: Viking, or Norseman, or Northman, or Varangian (people) (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)

Borg Viking museum, Norway

Ibn Fadlan and the Rusiyyah, by James E. Montgomery, with full translation of Ibn Fadlan

Wawm, Andrew, The Viking Revival (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) - BBC Online, Ancient History in Depth (updated 17 February 2011)

历史文献

Lofotr 维京博物馆

奥斯陆的维京船博物馆

维京船

维京人 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)

维京介绍 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)

维京船只介绍

维京师 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)

查论编北欧神话神祇(英语:List of Germanic deities)和其他人物阿萨神族(男性)

巴德爾

布拉基

得林

凡賽堤

海姆达尔

赫爾莫德

霍德爾

海尼爾

Ítreksjóð(英语:Ítreksjóð)

洛德

洛基

瑪尼

Meili(英语:Meili)

密米爾

曼尼與摩迪

奥丁

奧德

索尔

提爾

烏勒爾

瓦利

維達

威利和菲(英语:Vili and Vé)

威利

阿萨神族(女性)

維茲芬、碧爾和修奇

埃爾

弗丽嘉

芙拉

葛馮

葛德

蓋娜

赫琳

伊登

Ilmr(英语:Ilmr)

Þorgerðr Hölgabrúðr and Irpa(英语:Þorgerðr Hölgabrúðr and Irpa)

洛芬

南娜

Njörun(英语:Njörun)

琳達

萨迦和索克瓦贝克(英语:Sága and Sökkvabekkr)

薩迦

希芙

西格恩

修芬

絲卡蒂

斯洛特拉

蘇爾

席恩

斯露德

華爾

瓦爾

华纳神族

弗蕾亚

弗雷

Ingunar-Freyr(英语:Ingunar-Freyr)

英格维(英语:Yngvi)

赫諾絲和格爾塞蜜

赫诺丝(英语:Hnoss)

格尔塞蜜(英语:Gersemi)

古爾維格

克瓦希爾

尼奥尔德

Sister-wife of Njörðr(英语:Sister-wife of Njörðr)

那瑟斯

巨人(英语:Jötunn)(列表、霜巨人、山巨人、火巨人)

埃吉爾

Alvaldi(英语:Alvaldi)

安格爾波達

奥波达(英语:Aurboða)

巴烏吉

畢利

貝格爾米爾

貝斯特拉

博爾頌

贝莱斯特(英语:Býleistr)

艾格瑟

法布提

Fjölvar(英语:Fjölvar)

Fjörgyn and Fjörgynn(英语:Fjörgyn and Fjörgynn)

佛恩尤特

刚(英语:Gangr)

蓋爾羅德

吉爾林

格嘉普和格蕾普(英语:Gjálp and Greip)

格莉德

格蘿德

蓋密爾

Harðgreipr(英语:Harðgreipr)

赫尔布林迪(英语:Helblindi)

何乐雷格(英语:Helreginn)

弗琉莉兹(英语:Hljod)

赫拉斯瓦爾格

Hrímgerðr(英语:Hrímgerðr)

Hrímgrímnir(英语:Hrímgrímnir)

Hrímnir(英语:Hrímnir)

Hroðr(英语:Hroðr)

赫朗格尼爾

赫列姆

希密爾

希爾羅金

伊迪(英语:Iði)

Im(英语:Im (巨人))

雅恩莎撒

嬌德

勞菲

萊恩(英语:Leikn)

里特(英语:Litr)

洛吉(英语:Logi)

Mögþrasir(英语:Mögþrasir)

納爾弗(英语:Narfi)

史基密米尔(英语:Sökkmímir)

史爾特爾

蘇圖恩

夏基

索克

Þrívaldi(英语:Þrívaldi)

瑟洛特格尔密尔(英语:Þrúðgelmir)

索列姆

烏特迦·洛奇

瓦夫蘇魯特尼爾

瓦利

Víðblindi(英语:Víðblindi)

Vosud(英语:Vosud)

Vörnir(英语:Vörnir)

尤彌爾

侏儒

亞爾維斯

安德瓦利

Billingr(英语:Billingr)

布罗克(英语:Brokkr)

戴恩(英语:Dáinn (Norse dwarf))

杜林

Dúrnir(英语:Dúrnir)

杜华林(英语:Dvalin)

伊特理(英语:Eitri)

法夫納

Fjalar and Galar(英语:法亚拉和戈拉)

甘道夫

赫瑞德瑪

里特(英语:Litr)

摩索尼爾

諾德里、蘇德里、奧斯特里和威斯特里

歐特

雷金

伊瓦第之子(英语:Sons of Ivaldi)

英雄(英语:List of Germanic heroes)

Egil(英语:Egil, brother of Volund)

亞倫格林

Bödvar Bjarki(英语:Bödvar Bjarki)

Björn Ironside(英语:Björn Járnsíða)

Guðmundr(英语:Guðmundr)

海伯德(英语:Hagbard)

黑克(英语:Haki)

赫德雷克(英语:Heidrek)

Helgi Haddingjaskati(英语:Helgi Haddingjaskati)

Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar(英语:Helgi Hjörvarðsson)

海尔吉·匈丁斯巴纳(英语:Helgi Hundingsbane)

赫尔薇尔(英语:Hervor)

耶尔玛和英博格(英语:Hjalmar and Ingeborg)

Hlöd(英语:Hlöðr)

Hothbrodd(英语:Höðbroddr)

Hrólfr Kraki(英语:Hrólfr Kraki)

英乔德(英语:Ingeld)

Jonakr's sons(英语:Jónakr's sons)

Örvar-Oddr(英语:Örvar-Oddr)

Palnatoke(英语:Palnatoke)

朗納爾·洛德布羅克

利里尔(英语:Rerir)

齐格蒙(英语:Sigmund)

西格鲁德

斯瓦弗尔拉梅(英语:Svafrlami)

辛菲特利

斯塔尔卡德(英语:Starkad)

健硕者史泰邦(英语:Styrbjörn the Strong)

斯维普达格(英语:Svipdagr)

Völsung(英语:Völsung)

Weohstan(英语:Vésteinn)

其他

阿斯克和恩布拉(英语:Ask and Embla)

歐德姆布拉

贝依拉(英语:Beyla)

包爾

布利

贝格维尔(英语:Byggvir)

Dís(英语:Dís)

英靈戰士

埃尔迪尔(英语:Eldir)

精靈

Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar(英语:Dark elves (Dökkálfar))

Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar(英语:Light elves (Ljósálfar))

Svartálfar(英语:Black elves (Svartálfar))

费玛芬格(英语:Fimafeng)

芬里尔

加姆

哈提

赫尔

維茲芬、碧爾和修奇

阿萨神族的马(英语:Horses of the Æsir)

阿爾瓦克和阿爾斯維

勃洛度格霍菲

Falhófnir(英语:Falhófnir)

Gísl(英语:Gísl)

Glad (Norse mythology)(英语:Glaðr)

Glær(英语:Glær)

Glenr(英语:Glenr)

格拉尼

古爾法克西

Gulltoppr(英语:Gulltoppr)

Gyllir(英语:Gyllir)

Hamskerpir and Garðrofa(英语:Hamskerpir and Garðrofa)

霍瓦爾普尼爾

赫利姆法克西和斯基法克西

斯雷普尼爾

斯瓦迪爾法利

Jafnhárr(英语:Jafnhárr)

耶夢加得

Móðguðr(英语:Móðguðr)

埃吉尔和澜的九个女儿

海姆达尔的九个母亲(英语:Nine Mothers of Heimdallr)

納爾弗

尼德霍格

诺伦

兀兒德

薇兒丹蒂

斯庫爾德

拟人化神

達古

伊里

諾特

Sumarr and Vetr(英语:Sumarr and Vetr)

史基尼尔

斯庫爾

盾女

希亞費與蘿絲克芙

瓦尔基丽雅

列表

沃伦德(英语:Wayland the Smith)

奧爾勞格

雷神之锤地点九个世界(英语:Norse cosmology)

亞爾夫海姆

阿斯加德

約頓海姆

米德加尔德

穆斯貝爾海姆

尼德威阿爾/斯法塔尔夫海姆(英语:Svartálfaheimr)

尼福爾海姆

華納海姆

冥界

冥界

埃琉德尼爾

地狱之桥(英语:Gjallarbrú)

納斯特隆德

Niflhel(英语:Niflhel)

尼达山(英语:Niðafjöll)

河流

冰之波

吉歐爾

伊芬格尔(英语:Ífingr)

Kerlaugar(英语:Kerlaugar)

科尔特姆和乌尔特姆(英语:Körmt and Örmt)

Slidr River(英语:Slidr River)

Vadgelmir(英语:Vadgelmir)

維穆爾

其他地点

亚姆斯瓦提尼尔(英语:Amsvartnir)

Andlang(英语:Andlang)

巴里

彩虹橋

毕尔斯基尔尼尔

布屋瓦拉(英语:Brávellir)

布里米尔(英语:Brimir)

芬撒里爾

弗爾克范格

Fornsigtuna(英语:Fornsigtuna)

Fyrisvellir(英语:Fyrisvellir)

Gálgviðr(英语:Gálgviðr)

甘德维克(英语:Gandvik)

Gastropnir(英语:Gastropnir)

津利

金倫加

格拉茲海姆

Glæsisvellir(英语:Glæsisvellir)

格利特尼爾

格尼巴

Grove of fetters(英语:Grove of fetters)

希敏約格

希恩达尔峰(英语:Hindarfjall)

至高王座

赫尼特比约格山(英语:Hnitbjorg)

赫特密密尔森林(英语:Hoddmímis holt)

艾達華爾

Járnviðr(英语:Járnviðr)

Mímameiðr(英语:Mímameiðr)

Myrkviðr(英语:Myrkviðr)

Munarvágr(英语:Munarvágr)

諾歐通

Okolnir(英语:Okolnir)

塞斯伦姆涅尔(英语:Sessrúmnir)

辛德里(英语:Sindri (mythology))

Singasteinn(英语:Singasteinn)

特隆赫姆(英语:Þrúðheimr)

斯羅德萬

索列姆海姆

厄特加尔

瓦拉斯卡爾夫(英语:Valaskjálf)

瓦爾哈拉

Víðbláinn(英语:Víðbláinn)

維格利德

梵格爾夫

赫瓦格密爾

密米爾之泉

兀兒德之泉

紫杉谷

世界之树

索克瓦貝克

事件

阿萨–华纳战争(英语:Æsir–Vanir War)

芬布爾之冬

Hjaðningavíg(英语:Hjaðningavíg)

諸神的黃昏

神器

安德華拉諾特(手飾)

布里希嘉曼(項鍊)

德羅普尼爾(手飾)

艾瑞尼爾(鍋)

加拉爾(號角)

格拉墨(劍)

格萊普尼爾(鎖鏈)

冈格尼尔(槍)

雅恩格利佩爾(鐵手套)

雷瓦汀(?)

妙爾尼爾(鎚)

梅金吉奧德(力量腰帶)

米斯特汀(劍)

納吉爾法(船)

斯基德普拉特尼(船)

提爾鋒(魔劍)

來源

《丹麦人的事迹》

《埃达》

《詩體埃達》

《散文埃達》

如尼石刻

《萨迦》

提爾峰系列(英语:Tyrfing Cycle)

沃爾松格系列(英语:Völsung Cycle)

古諾斯語

正字法(英语:Old Norse orthography)

后世影响(英语:Norse mythology in popular culture)

社会

Blót(英语:Blót)

Félag(英语:Félag)

日耳曼历法(英语:Germanic calendar)

指稱隱喻(英语:Heiti)

赫尔格(英语:Hörgr)

複合隱喻語

蜜酒厅(英语:Mead hall)

Nīþ(英语:Nīþ)

北欧异教崇拜(英语:Norse rituals)

数字(英语:Numbers in Norse mythology)

日耳曼异教和神话中的圣树和圣林(英语:Sacred trees and groves in Germanic paganism and mythology)

塞德(英语:Seiðr)

吟唱詩人(英语:Skald)

維京時代

維京人

渥爾娃女巫

盧恩字母

参见

北欧神祇(英语:List of Germanic deities)

北歐巨人

神话中的北欧人物、项目和地点(英语:List of people, items and places in Norse mythology)

日耳曼多神教

日耳曼新異教運動

北歐宗教

斯堪的纳维亚

规范控制

AAT: 300019558

GND: 4066083-7

取自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=維京人&oldid=81203113”

分类:​維京時期歐洲古代族群維京人斯堪的纳维亚人隐藏分类:​自2022年4月需要清理外部連結的條目自2022年4月需要從英語維基百科翻譯的條目需要從英語維基百科翻譯的條目自2022年4月需要從丹麥語維基百科翻譯的條目需要從丹麥語維基百科翻譯的條目自2022年4月需补充来源的条目拒绝当选首页新条目推荐栏目的条目自2022年4月维基百科来源清理含有多个问题的条目含有非中文內容的條目含有英語的條目有未列明来源语句的条目需要查證來源的維基百科條目自2021年10月需要查證來源的維基百科條目维基共享资源分类链接由本地定义包含AAT标识符的维基百科条目包含GND标识符的维基百科条目

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Viking是什么意思_Viking怎么读_Viking翻译_用法_发音_词组_同反义词_海盗_北欧海盗_斯堪的纳维亚人-新东方在线英语词典

Viking是什么意思_Viking怎么读_Viking翻译_用法_发音_词组_同反义词_海盗_北欧海盗_斯堪的纳维亚人-新东方在线英语词典

英语词典 -

日语词典

首页 > 英语词典 > 字母单词表 > v开头的单词 > Viking

Viking

听听怎么读

英 [ˈvaɪkɪŋ]

美 [ˈvaɪkɪŋ]

是什么意思

n.海盗,北欧海盗,斯堪的纳维亚人;

变形

复数:Vikings

英英释义

Viking[ 'vaikiŋ ]n.any of the Scandinavian people who raided the coasts of Europe from the 8th to the 11th centuries

学习怎么用

双语例句

用作名词(n.)The Vikings harried the English coast.北欧海盗曾不断骚扰英国沿海地区。Our coasts were preyed upon by Viking pirates.我们的海岸曾被北欧海盗所劫掠。In those far- off times Viking pirates used to prey on the coasts of Europe.在那些遥远的时代里,北欧海盗经常在欧洲海岸一带进行掠夺。

权威例句

Viking relativity experiment - Verification of signal retardation by solar gravityThermal and albedo mapping of Mars during the Viking primary missionPlasma energization on auroral field lines as observed by the Viking spacecraftSpectral mixture modeling: A new analysis of rock and soil types at Viking Lander ISpectral mixture modeling: A new analysis of rock and soil types at the Viking Lander 1 SiteSpectral mixture modeling: a new analysis of rock and soil types at the Viking Lander I site. J. Geophys. Res. 80(B8): 8098-8112Global numerical simulation of the growth phase and the expansion onset for a substorm observed by VikingComposition and structure of Mars' upper atmosphere - Results from the neutral mass spectrometers on Viking 1 and 2An intercomparison of ground-based millimeter, MGS TES, and Viking atmospheric temperature measurements: Seasonal and interannual va...The Age of Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human Intelligence,: Ray Kurzweil; Viking, London, 1999, 388 pages, hardbound, ...

v开头的单词vulnerable to

vulgar fraction

voyage number

voyage charter party

vox populi

vowel point

voyage charter

vouch for

Voting rights

voting machine

voting stock

voting booth 词汇所属分类硅谷 第一季 Silicon Valley Season 1

看美剧攻略词汇

英语单词词频20000之1-6000

美国当代语料库(COCA) 6000-8000词

美国当代语料库(COCA)20000高频

高频词汇让你流畅阅读经济学人 字母词汇表更多g开头的单词gzip

Gz

gyving

gyves

gyved

gyve

n开头的单词NZ

nyx

nyu

nyt

nystatin

nystagmus

w开头的单词wyvern

Wythe

WYSIWYG

WYS

Wyrd

wyomingite 分类词汇表更多动物世界zebra

zebra

yak

yak

worm

worker ant

以人为本ZPG (zero population growth)

youngest child

youngest

wrist

wrist

wrinkles

劳动光荣wheelbarrow

weeding hoe

watering can

vice

tyre lever

two-beaked anvil 人名姓氏表更多男zack

zachary

Zachariah

young

York

Yates

女Zola

Zoe

Zenobia

Zenia

Zena

Zandra

男/女Yong

wynn

winter

willie

Whitney

wally 新东方柯林斯词典 托福考试练习 雅思预测2024年雅思考试重点题汇总[听力|阅读|写作|口语]

2024年2月雅思考试听力|阅读|写作|口语重点题汇总

2024年1月雅思考前必刷题听力|阅读|口语|写作汇总

2024年3月雅思考试听力|阅读|写作|口语重点题汇总

[雅思考前必刷]2024年1月雅思口语考前必刷题Part 2&3地点类

2020年9月雅思口语新题part1:shopping

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[雅思考前必刷]2024年1月雅思口语考前必刷题Part 2&3事件类

2020年9月雅思口语新题part1:Activity

2021年1月雅思口语新题part2:你以前看过的现场体育赛事

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Viking是什么意思_Viking的翻译_音标_读音_用法_例句_爱词霸在线词典

ng是什么意思_Viking的翻译_音标_读音_用法_例句_爱词霸在线词典首页翻译背单词写作校对词霸下载用户反馈专栏平台登录Viking是什么意思_Viking用英语怎么说_Viking的翻译_Viking翻译成_Viking的中文意思_Viking怎么读,Viking的读音,Viking的用法,Viking的例句翻译人工翻译试试人工翻译翻译全文简明柯林斯牛津Viking英 [ˈvaɪkɪŋ]美 [ˈvaɪkɪŋ]释义n.海盗,北欧海盗,<口>斯堪的纳维亚人点击 人工翻译,了解更多 人工释义词态变化复数: Vikings;实用场景例句全部Six hundred Viking boats attacked Hamburg , which was set on fire.600艘海盗船袭击汉堡, 汉堡惨遭焚烧.英汉非文学 - 文明史The Nicolet - Viking - Select system was used for SSR and RRIV detection.所用仪器为Nicolet-Viking-Select型.互联网A backpack is a Viking helmet - neither should be a crowed train.背包像维京海盗的头盔一样,不应该带上拥挤的火车.互联网The Viking and Mars Pathfinder images from the surface look eerily Earth - like.维京人号和火星探路者号传回的火星地表影像,与地球出奇类似.互联网The Viking 1 landed on the Mars on July 20 th.1976年7月20日,海盗1号在火星着陆.互联网It is said a Norwegian Viking Floki VilgerTarson gave Iceland this name.据说为冰岛命名的人是挪威海盗弗洛基·维尔格达森.互联网Viking Johnson is part of Crane Building Services & Utilities.维京约翰逊是起重机建筑服务 和 公共事业的一部分.互联网The MTW Viking Invasion expansion ends in this year.维京入侵这一年结束.互联网Yet not everyone viewed the Viking findings as a failure.但并非所有人都将“海盗”探索的结果视为失败.互联网The Viking spacecraft consisted of two orbiters.维京太空船由两个轨道航行器组成.互联网Our coasts were preyed upon by Viking pirates.我们的海岸曾被北欧海盗所劫掠.互联网He could row like a Viking.他划起船来就像北欧海盗一般.互联网He dances like a Viking AViking.他尤其擅长击杀仇敌. 他跳起舞来就像个维京人一样.互联网Well, he looked like a 1 Viking.这个啊, 他当时看起来像个北欧海盗.互联网Ross : Yeah. He could row like a viking.是啊, 他划得就像维京海盗一样好.互联网收起实用场景例句真题例句全部四级六级Later, Viking travelers named it Iceland.2017年12月四级真题(第一套)听力 Section CFor decades,these descendants of the Viking shave been trying to show the world that the right mix of enlightened policy.出自-2014年6月阅读原文The complex style of the medieval wooden church carvings and the skills used to make them almost certainly to derive from the ancient Viking tradition.2019年12月六级真题(第一套)听力 Section CThese buildings offer vital insight into Scandinavia's Viking past.2019年12月六级真题(第一套)听力 Section C收起真题例句英英释义Noun1. any of the Scandinavian people who raided the coasts of Europe from the 8th to the 11th centuries收起英英释义释义词态变化实用场景例句真题例句英

維京人 - 維基百科,自由的百科全書

維京人 - 維基百科,自由的百科全書

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貢獻討論

目次

移至側邊欄

隱藏

序言

1名稱解釋及形成背景

2歷史

3維京時代

4維京人在美洲

5貿易

6維京人的船

7維京戰士

切換 維京戰士 子章節

7.1狂戰士

7.2騎馬戰士

7.3傭兵

7.4瓦蘭吉衛士團

8傳說

切換 傳說 子章節

8.1有角的頭盔

8.2其他

9社會

10參見

11注釋

12參考資料

13外部連結

切換目錄

維京人

141 種語言

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系列條目斯堪地那維亞

地理

山脈

半島

維京時代

維京時代

古諾斯語

瓦良格人

維京人

北歐神話

基督教化(英語:Christianization of Scandinavia)

政治實體

卡爾馬聯盟

丹麥-挪威

瑞典–挪威

瑞屬芬蘭

歷史

格陵蘭

丹麥(法羅群島)

芬蘭(奧蘭群島)

挪威

瑞典

冰島

其他

北日耳曼語支

泛斯堪地那維亞主義

北歐理事會

貨幣聯盟/防衛同盟

聯賽/使館/航空公司

閱論編

丹麥海員,於11世紀中繪畫。

維京人(古諾斯語:víkingr)是諾斯人(意即「北方人」,現在則稱為斯堪的納維亞人)在北歐區域的一支,主要由探險家、狂戰士、商人、水手、海盜、巫師和工匠組成一類族群集合體[1][2]。他們來源於現代的挪威中部和南部、丹麥全境以及瑞典中部和南部,在北歐尚未形成「國家」的概念之前就以一個鬆散的部落聯盟的形式存在,並非是統一的國家或民族。

從公元8世紀到11世紀,他們侵擾並殖民了大部分歐洲沿海,如法國的諾曼底、西西里島及南義大利、拉脫維亞全境、芬蘭南部和西部等諸多區域,其中尤以英格蘭的丹麥王朝和烏克蘭的基輔羅斯最具代表性,甚至影響了英國及俄國後來的歷史進程,維京人的足跡還遍及了北極乃至北美洲東部,形成一片廣闊的內海疆域。

在歐洲歷史上,這一時期被稱為「維京時期」,這給歐洲各國都帶來了深遠的影響。維京人的造船術、建築學、重型進攻武器、北歐神話體系、針織花紋和盧恩符文占卜的造詣處於歐洲的頂尖位置,帶動歐洲其它國家在這些技術上的發展;但是,其防禦型武器、狩獵、禮服體系、社交文化、飲酒習俗、文學和奢侈工藝品與同時期的歐洲相比較又為原始野蠻,反而受到歐洲基督教-日耳曼文明的同化,是偏科非常嚴重的文化族群。在維京人在接受基督教之後,大多數文化逐漸被歐洲人同化,但其宗教、建築、節日、飲食文化並未完全消失,而是在日常生活中和歐洲人的主流形式融合,雖然喪失了一些自己的原貌,但是其後代——北歐的維京人三國(丹麥、瑞典、挪威)至今仍然保有大量有別於其它基督教歐洲國家的獨特文化遺產。

因為維京人的特殊文化遺產,故在現代的電影藝術和電子遊戲中經常能發現這類族群的身影。

名稱解釋及形成背景[編輯]

這段時間北歐的軍事、貿易及人口擴張是斯堪的納維亞、不列顛群島、西西里、俄羅斯及歐洲其他地區中古時期歷史的一個重要元素[3]。在英語中,維京人這個詞是從18世紀的傳奇故事中引入的,有一種說法認為可能是來源於古代北歐人的古北歐語語言,「vik」意思是「海灣」,「ing」意思是「從……來」,加起來「維京」意思是在海灣中從事某種事,「vikingr」是在海灣中從事這種事的人。另一種說法認為是來源於古英語「wíc」意思是「進行貿易的城市」,因為後來部分維京人定居到不列顛島,並和當地人進行貿易。他們在公元800到1070年處於統治地位,對海上交通構成威脅。「vikingr」這個詞曾經出現在斯堪地那維亞半島的古代盧恩文石碑上面,在冰島的土語中也意味著「海上冒險」。在英語中「wicing」這個詞首先出現在6世紀的古代盎格羅-撒克遜的詩歌中,意思就是海盜,但當時英國人並沒有將北歐海盜稱為維京。在中古英語中「維京」這個詞已經消失了,但18世紀時又重新出現在傳奇故事中,到了20世紀,「維京」不僅指海盜,意義擴展為指斯堪地那維亞人,並出現許多新詞如:「維京時代」、「維京文化」、「維京殖民地」等。由於後來斯堪地那維亞人沿著芬蘭、俄羅斯平原的河流從事商業活動直到東羅馬帝國,並在河流沿岸設立殖民地定居,所以後來將來自斯堪地那維亞的商人也稱作維京,北美洲的斯堪地那維亞人也被說英語的人稱為維京。實際上並不是所有斯堪地那維亞人都是海盜,他們和其他地區的歐洲人一樣也是農民、漁夫和獵人,他們為了防止海盜入侵也成立了艦隊,將所有的斯堪地那維亞人都稱為維京會造成混淆。

歷史[編輯]

最早見於記載的維京海盜,是記錄在《盎格魯-撒克遜編年史》中的公元789年,一次對英國的襲擊:當時這些海盜被英國官員誤認是商人,官員要向他們徵稅,海盜只好殺死官員。第二次是在公元793年。以後200年間,維京不斷地侵擾歐洲沿海,沿著河流向上游內地劫掠,曾經控制東歐平原和波羅的海沿岸。據說他們曾遠達地中海和裏海沿岸。其中的一支渡過波羅的海,並遠征諾夫哥羅德,到達基輔和伏爾加保加利亞,並建立基輔羅斯。有些船隊遠航至裏海,前往大伊朗、美索不達米亞和阿拉伯人做生意。而更為著名的一支維京人沿著西歐的大西洋沿岸向南挺進,在歐洲的心臟地帶掀起軒然大波。他們大肆劫掠大不列顛島,並且還向西歐進行了侵擾。維京(Vikings)一詞便帶有掠奪、殺戮等意思。維京人對於歐洲歷史尤其是英格蘭和法蘭西的歷史進程產生過深遠影響。

11世紀時的日耳曼人歷史學家不來梅的亞當曾在他的著作《漢堡大主教史》第四卷中記載過:「海盜們在西蘭島聚集了大量的黃金,這些海盜被他們自己人稱為維京,我們稱他們為阿斯考曼尼,他們向丹麥國王納貢」。

13世紀時,挪威國王哈羅德一世下決心要將這些海盜從蘇格蘭及附近島嶼清除出去[來源請求],部分維京人逃到冰島。北歐的傳說將他們描繪成無畏的英雄,但到了18世紀的傳奇中又把他們描繪成強盜。其他歐洲人認為是斯堪地那維亞農民業餘去做海盜,但斯堪地那維亞人認為可能這些人只是非法的強盜。

維京時代[編輯]

主條目:維京時代

九世紀初期的歐洲

維京人的航行與領土

北方日耳曼人從公元790年開始擴張,直到公元1066年丹麥人的後裔征服英格蘭,一般稱之為「維京時代」[4],是歐洲古典時代和中世紀之間的過渡時期。維京人是著名的航海家,他們在昔德蘭群島、法羅群島、冰島、格陵蘭島,都設立了殖民地,在10世紀末曾不定期地在美洲紐芬蘭居住過。他們不僅是海盜,也同時進行貿易,甚至定居在歐洲沿海和河流兩岸。

有記錄說公元839年他們曾作為東羅馬帝國的雇傭兵而征戰北非。他們的殖民地遍布歐洲,包括英格蘭的丹麥區、基輔羅斯、法國的諾曼第等等。只是到了維京時代的末期,北歐才出現獨立的國家和國王,同時也接納了基督教,開始進入中世紀。東羅馬以及西亞回教諸國等地中海東岸國家因國勢較強,維京人在此處的擴張比較受挫,坎尼戰役甚至遭受東羅馬毀滅性打擊而被迫延後在義大利的霸業。而西歐諸國由於長期藩鎮割據致使維京人得以大肆擴張,直到中世紀中期西歐各國因為強化王權或都市同盟勢力抬頭後國勢日盛,才比較有能力抵抗維京海盜。隨後在漢撒同盟、威尼斯等諸多新興海軍強國打擊下,維京人靠搶掠而創立的霸業方才逐漸消亡。

維京人在美洲[編輯]

主條目:文蘭 (紐芬蘭)和維京人殖民北美

維京人萊夫·埃里克松早在哥倫布發現新大陸前五百多年就已登陸了美洲。據推測,他們是在到達格陵蘭島後,再向西行,才抵達今天加拿大的紐芬蘭及巴芬島。他們在那裡發現了許多有用的物資,包括木材、葡萄、毛皮等,不過他們在美洲大陸只待了大約十年之久,就離開了這個物產豐盛的大陸,而原因可能是因為美洲原住民。

考古學之前發現,加拿大紐芬蘭的蘭塞奧茲牧草地上,有8座木造建築遺址,是維京人曾駐足此地[5],但發現當時的科學研究能力有限,無法得知維京人確切抵達的日期[6]。2021年10月,荷蘭格羅寧根大學學者在科學期刊《自然》發布學術研究結果[7],木造遺址是維京人在西元1021年所建。巧合的是,建築時間與科學證實日期,恰巧相距10個世紀。

該大學在研究中以科學方式,利用宇宙射線在樹木年輪中形成的放射性特殊碳訊號,得到公元1021年維京人在紐芬蘭建造木屋的證據。研究者發現公元992年曾有大規模太陽風暴,而遺址中的木材經科技驗證:在該年太陽風暴造成特殊年輪後,繼續形成有29圈的年輪,代表遺址中的該批木材是在1021年被砍伐。此研究克服先前對於年份估計的不精確性,為歐洲人登陸美洲的歷史奠定了標竿,對於後續有關維京的歷史研究,例如:知識轉移、遺傳資訊、動物遷徙和病理學交換,有很大的意義[8]。

貿易[編輯]

維京貿易商用的秤和砝碼,用在測量銀,有時也拿來測量金,來自錫格蒂納箱(英語:Sigtuna box)

維京人和當時已知的世界建立了廣泛的貿易網絡,對歐洲及斯堪地那維亞半島的經濟發展有一定程度的影響[9][10]。

維京世界不太使用金錢,只有像里伯及赫德比(英語:Hedeby)之類的貿易中心才會使用,其經濟稱為金銀塊(英語:bullion)經濟。當時交易最常用到的金屬是銀,有時也會使用金作為交易媒介。銀是用銀棒或是錠(英語:ingots)的方式流通,也有用首飾或是珠寶的形式流通。貿易商會帶著小的秤,可以精準的量測重量,因此雖然沒有一般的貨幣,但可能已有非常精準的貿易系統。

維京人的船[編輯]

主條目:維京長船

維京人的船是維京文化中重要的組成部分,可以說維京人的一切都與他們的船有密切聯繫。維京船製造的材料主要取自高大筆直的橡樹。維京船分為戰船和貨船兩類。戰船較輕,船窄,靈活輕便,又很耐風浪;而貨船的船身又高又寬,船體也很重,在波濤洶湧的大海中載重航行時可保持穩定。兩類船都有通常所說的彎曲船首,用一整塊完整的橡木精雕細刻而成。

維京長船由於吃水淺,速度快,轉向靈活,十分適合遠征異地時突襲式的掠奪活動。但由於維京戰船甲板是露天的,因此無法擋風遮雨。風雨和巨浪仍然使維京人又冷又濕,凍死人和夜晚被巨浪卷下海淹死都是很常見的事。由此可見,維京人的這種穿越大海的征服行動無疑必須具有無比的勇氣和堅定的毅力,在取得勝利之前首先要忍受極大的痛苦。因此維京人這個名詞從中世紀強烈的貶義到了今天又帶有勇氣的含義[11]。

維京戰士[編輯]

維京人的軍事上存在一些罕見於其他民族的兵種。[12][需要較佳來源]

狂戰士[編輯]

狂戰士帶著打死不退的精神與敵人廝殺,他們自認有「奧丁的庇護」而勇往直前無所畏懼。其形象常與狼、熊等元素掛上關聯,如其英文「berserker」即為北歐語的字根「ber」(熊)加上「sekr」(上衣)組成。

狂戰士隨著基督教在斯堪地那維亞的擴張而有所衰退。教會視其為「狂亂的心靈」,並將強盜、野蠻等形象加諸在狂戰士身上,使其被排擠出主流社會。此外,法律也將其「狂暴」視為罪刑,並施以監禁、流放等懲罰,這些種種因素使得狂戰士逐漸淡出了歷史。

騎馬戰士[編輯]

傳統上維京人的戰鬥配置中並沒有騎兵,因為馬匹在斯堪地那維亞為罕見動物,地形破碎的斯堪地那維亞出產的馬也不是優良的戰馬,所以配有坐騎的人只為了彰顯自己的身分地位,通常是國王、伯爵、指揮官等戰場上的重要人物。

維京時代的後期,丹麥王室將騎兵編入了親衛隊當中,這可能是模仿法蘭克人或諾曼人的騎士制度,但馬只是交通工具,且維京人不諳馬術與馬戰,皆以下馬作戰為主。

傭兵[編輯]

維京傭兵團盛行於十世紀至十一世紀初,他們受僱於法蘭克人、盎格魯-薩克遜人、西班牙人、東歐各民族等勢力。雇用者除了給予金錢報酬之外,為了避免傭兵團見利忘義而倒戈,也可能給予土地等等無法帶走的獎勵,使得傭兵無法輕易背棄他們之間的雇約。

瓦蘭吉衛士團[編輯]

瓦蘭吉衛隊為拜占庭的菁英親衛隊(為維京傭兵團的一種)。領軍者則仍是拜占庭人。

拜占庭帝國和羅斯公國在西元860年簽訂了和約,使得拜占庭帝國可在公國內雇用士兵作為自己的部隊,而這個被雇用的士兵包含了當時在基輔流浪的維京傭兵。西元911年時,約有七百名「瓦蘭吉人」於拜占庭從軍。十世紀時,巴西爾二世將此兵團擴充至六千人左右,並用其東征西討。之後因戰死、退役、預算收縮等因素,衛士團數量逐漸縮編至三千人以下。

瓦蘭吉衛隊的標準配備為一頂頭盔、一件鎖子甲,並手持一把雙手巨斧。

傳說[編輯]

有角的頭盔[編輯]

Magnus Barelegs的維京節,其中的頭盔上沒有角

傳說中維京人戴著有角的頭盔。除了兩三個儀式中用的的頭盔外(上面可能是象徵烏鴉、蛇或牛角的突起物),沒有證據說明維京人會戴角盔(英語:Horned helmet)[13]。正式、近距離的維京戰鬥(可能是在屏蔽牆或是在艦島上)中,戴著角盔很麻煩,甚至會造成戰友的危險。

歷史學家相信維京戰士不會戴角盔,不過不確定是否會在其他儀式使用。有關維京戰士戴角盔的誤解可能是來自19世紀的Geatish社群(英語:Geatish Society)愛好者,Geatish社群在1811年於斯德哥爾摩成立,提倡用北歐神話作為一些高雅藝術的主題。這種有關維京人戴有角的頭盔的印象也可能是來自理查·華格納1876年的劇作《尼伯龍根的指環》[14]。

維京人常會用有翼的頭盔和古典時代的服裝來加以描繪,特別是那些北歐諸神的服裝,其目的是將維京人和他們的神話連在一起,這是歐洲文化中常見的理想化。

後來民族浪漫主義創造的迷思將維京人和二千多年前的北歐銅器時代(英語:Nordic Bronze Age)混為一談。北歐銅器時代的岩刻上有出現過角盔,也有在考古的物品中發現過(例如布胡斯及Veksø(英語:Veksø)的頭盔),可能是用在禮儀上的用途[15]。

像《Hägar the Horrible(英語:Hägar the Horrible)》和《北海小英雄》等卡通,以及明尼蘇達維京人和坎培拉奇襲隊(英語:Canberra Raiders)的圖案中,仍沿用了維京人戴著角盔這個被誤解的概念,可能也造成此一迷思的傳播[16]。

維京人的頭盔是硬皮革製的圓錐形物體,在正規部隊中會木頭及金屬加以強化。鐵質且有面具的頭盔是首領用的,是以中瑞典以往在文德爾(英語:Vendel)的頭盔為基礎。唯一真正的維京人頭盔是在挪威的Gjermundbu發現的,是鐵製的頭盔,年代可以追溯到第十世紀[17]。

其他[編輯]

傳說中維京人渾身骯髒,蓬亂的長頭髮和大鬍子混在一起,用人的頭蓋骨作酒碗。實際古代北歐語言中skal意思是酒碗,被不正確地翻譯成拉丁語的「頭蓋骨」;當時維京人喜好清潔在歷史上是有記載的。

傳說維京人身材是很高大。有現代學者對此進行過研究,研究指出當時的維京人身高大約是168.4公分至174公分。與現代人比起來,維京人的身材不算是很高,但跟當時的人相比,維京人的確是比較高。

維京人很乾淨,非常在乎他們的外表和良好的衛生習慣。與普遍的看法相反,他們經常洗澡,遠遠超過中世紀後期的人口。星期六的古挪威語單詞是Laugardagr,即洗滌日。907年,一群瑞典維京人在黑海與拜占庭帝國之間簽訂和平條約的要求之一是斯堪地那維亞人應該可「隨心所欲」地進入拜占庭人的公共浴池。

社會[編輯]

維京人的社會分為三個社會經濟階層;奴隸、農場工人(自由農民)和伯爵。

奴隸是社會中最底層的階級,是社會的重要組成部分,負責執行日常任務和進行大型建築專案,但他們也從事貿易和經濟活動。奴隸還被用作農場的工人和伯爵的大家庭僕人和勞工,他們被用來建造防禦工事、坡道、運河、墳墓、道路和類似的艱苦勞動。根據帝國遷徙的記載,奴隸被鄙視和看不起,新的奴隸是由現有奴隸的兒女獲得的,或者是通過在其他土地上掠奪獲得的,奴隸或出售給穆斯林,以換取阿拉伯白銀。

自由農民。他們擁有自己的農場、土地和牛群,他們每天從事農業工作,耕田,擠奶,建造房屋和馬車,但他們也經常有奴隸來維持生計。

伯爵是維京社會的貴族。他們很富有,擁有大農場和巨大的長屋,有馬和許多奴隸。奴隸或僕人負責大部分日常工作,而伯爵則從事行政、政治、狩獵、拜訪其他伯爵或出國探險。當伯爵去世並被埋葬時,他的私人奴隸有時會被殺死並與他一起埋葬,正如一些考古發掘所顯示的那樣。

參見[編輯]

維京長船

維京雄獅

著名維京人列表

以維京人為背景的作品列表

原始諾爾斯語

如尼石刻

注釋[編輯]

^ Roesdahl, Else. The Vikings. Penguin Books. 1998: 9-22 [2014-07-13]. ISBN 9780140252828. (原始內容存檔於2014-07-18). 

^ Viking (people). Encyclopedia Brittanica. [2014-07-13]. (原始內容存檔於2014-10-06). 

^ Brink, Stefan. Who were the Vikings?. Brink, Stefan; Price, Neil (編). The Viking World. Routledge. 2008: 4–10. ISBN 9780415692625. 

^ Peter Sawyer, The Viking Expansion, The Cambridge History of Scandinavia, Issue 1 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館) (Knut Helle, ed., 2003), p.105.

^ Wallace, B. L. in Contact, Continuity, and Collapse: the Norse Colonization of the North Atlantic (ed. Barrett, J.) 207–238 (Brepols, 2003).

^ Dee, M. W. & Kuitems, M. Duration of activity inestimable due to imprecision of the data. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 116, 22907 (2019).

^ Kuitems, M., Wallace, B.L., Lindsay, C. et al. Evidence for European presence in the Americas in AD 1021. Nature (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03972-8

^ Mühlemann, B. et al. Diverse variola virus (smallpox) strains were widespread in northern Europe in the Viking Age. Science 369, 6502 (2020).

^ Gareth Williams: Viking Money (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館) BBC History

^ Graham­-Campbell, James: The Viking World, Frances Lincoln Ltd, London (2013). Maps of trade routes.

^ 白海軍《海上大征服》第十二章,東方中心出版社

^ 維京人傳奇 第四章, 楓樹林出版社

^ Kahn, Charles. World History: Societies of the Past. Portage & Main Press. 2005: 9 [March 18, 2011]. ISBN 978-1-55379-045-7. 

^ Frank, F. The Invention of the Viking Horned Helmet. International Scandinavian and Medieval Studies in Memory of Gerd Wolfgang Weber. 2000. (原始內容存檔於2014-04-13). 

^ Did Vikings really wear horns on their helmets? (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館), The Straight Dope, 7 December 2004. Retrieved 14 November 2007.

^ Did Vikings wear horned helmets?. The Economist. www.economist.com. [10 April 2014]. (原始內容存檔於2014-08-30). 

^ The Gjermundbu Find - The Chieftain Warrior. [10 April 2014]. (原始內容存檔於2014-02-15). 

參考資料[編輯]

Brink, Stefan. Who were the Vikings?. Brink, Stefan; Price, Neil (編). The Viking World. Routledge. 2008: 4–10. ISBN 9780415692625. 

Roesdahl, Else. The Vikings. Penguin Books. 1998 [2014-07-13]. ISBN 9780140252828. (原始內容存檔於2014-07-18). 

Konstam, Angus. 特殊兵種. Viking Warrior Operations Manual: The life, equipment, weapons and fighting tactics of the Vikings. Haynes Publishing UK. 2018: 122-127. ISBN 9781785211737. 

外部連結[編輯]

查看維基詞典中的詞條「Viking」。

維基共享資源上的相關多媒體資源:維京人

維基文庫中相關的原始文獻:Northmen

Vikings—View videos at The History Channel

Copenhagen-Portal – The Danish Vikings (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)

BBC: History of Vikings (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)

Encyclopædia Britannica: Viking, or Norseman, or Northman, or Varangian (people) (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)

Borg Viking museum, Norway

Ibn Fadlan and the Rusiyyah, by James E. Montgomery, with full translation of Ibn Fadlan

Wawm, Andrew, The Viking Revival (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館) - BBC Online, Ancient History in Depth (updated 17 February 2011)

歷史文獻

Lofotr 維京博物館

奧斯陸的維京船博物館

維京船

維京人 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)

維京介紹 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)

維京船隻介紹

維京師 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)

閱論編北歐神話神祇(英語:List of Germanic deities)和其他人物阿薩神族(男性)

巴德爾

布拉基

得林

凡賽堤

海姆達爾

赫爾莫德

霍德爾

海尼爾

Ítreksjóð(英語:Ítreksjóð)

洛德

洛基

瑪尼

Meili(英語:Meili)

密米爾

曼尼與摩迪

奧丁

奧德

索爾

提爾

烏勒爾

瓦利

維達

威利和菲(英語:Vili and Vé)

威利

阿薩神族(女性)

維茲芬、碧爾和修奇

埃爾

弗麗嘉

芙拉

葛馮

葛德

蓋娜

赫琳

伊登

Ilmr(英語:Ilmr)

Þorgerðr Hölgabrúðr and Irpa(英語:Þorgerðr Hölgabrúðr and Irpa)

洛芬

南娜

Njörun(英語:Njörun)

琳達

薩迦和索克瓦貝克(英語:Sága and Sökkvabekkr)

薩迦

希芙

西格恩

修芬

絲卡蒂

斯洛特拉

蘇爾

席恩

斯露德

華爾

瓦爾

華納神族

弗蕾亚

弗雷

Ingunar-Freyr(英語:Ingunar-Freyr)

英格維(英語:Yngvi)

赫諾絲和格爾塞蜜

赫諾絲(英語:Hnoss)

格爾塞蜜(英語:Gersemi)

古爾維格

克瓦希爾

尼奧爾德

Sister-wife of Njörðr(英語:Sister-wife of Njörðr)

那瑟斯

巨人(英語:Jötunn)(列表、霜巨人、山巨人、火巨人)

埃吉爾

Alvaldi(英語:Alvaldi)

安格爾波達

奧波達(英語:Aurboða)

巴烏吉

畢利

貝格爾米爾

貝斯特拉

博爾頌

貝萊斯特(英語:Býleistr)

艾格瑟

法布提

Fjölvar(英語:Fjölvar)

Fjörgyn and Fjörgynn(英語:Fjörgyn and Fjörgynn)

佛恩尤特

剛(英語:Gangr)

蓋爾羅德

吉爾林

格嘉普和格蕾普(英語:Gjálp and Greip)

格莉德

格蘿德

蓋密爾

Harðgreipr(英語:Harðgreipr)

赫爾布林迪(英語:Helblindi)

何樂雷格(英語:Helreginn)

弗琉莉茲(英語:Hljod)

赫拉斯瓦爾格

Hrímgerðr(英語:Hrímgerðr)

Hrímgrímnir(英語:Hrímgrímnir)

Hrímnir(英語:Hrímnir)

Hroðr(英語:Hroðr)

赫朗格尼爾

赫列姆

希密爾

希爾羅金

伊迪(英語:Iði)

Im(英語:Im (巨人))

雅恩莎撒

嬌德

勞菲

萊恩(英語:Leikn)

里特(英語:Litr)

洛吉(英語:Logi)

Mögþrasir(英語:Mögþrasir)

納爾弗(英語:Narfi)

史基密米爾(英語:Sökkmímir)

史爾特爾

蘇圖恩

夏基

索克

Þrívaldi(英語:Þrívaldi)

瑟洛特格爾密爾(英語:Þrúðgelmir)

索列姆

烏特迦·洛奇

瓦夫蘇魯特尼爾

瓦利

Víðblindi(英語:Víðblindi)

Vosud(英語:Vosud)

Vörnir(英語:Vörnir)

尤彌爾

侏儒

亞爾維斯

安德瓦利

Billingr(英語:Billingr)

布羅克(英語:Brokkr)

戴恩(英語:Dáinn (Norse dwarf))

杜林

Dúrnir(英語:Dúrnir)

杜華林(英語:Dvalin)

伊特理(英語:Eitri)

法夫納

Fjalar and Galar(英語:法亚拉和戈拉)

甘道夫

赫瑞德瑪

里特(英語:Litr)

摩索尼爾

諾德里、蘇德里、奧斯特里和威斯特里

歐特

雷金

伊瓦第之子(英語:Sons of Ivaldi)

英雄(英語:List of Germanic heroes)

Egil(英語:Egil, brother of Volund)

亞倫格林

Bödvar Bjarki(英語:Bödvar Bjarki)

Björn Ironside(英語:Björn Járnsíða)

Guðmundr(英語:Guðmundr)

海伯德(英語:Hagbard)

黑克(英語:Haki)

赫德雷克(英語:Heidrek)

Helgi Haddingjaskati(英語:Helgi Haddingjaskati)

Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar(英語:Helgi Hjörvarðsson)

海爾吉·匈丁斯巴納(英語:Helgi Hundingsbane)

赫爾薇爾(英語:Hervor)

耶爾瑪和英博格(英語:Hjalmar and Ingeborg)

Hlöd(英語:Hlöðr)

Hothbrodd(英語:Höðbroddr)

Hrólfr Kraki(英語:Hrólfr Kraki)

英喬德(英語:Ingeld)

Jonakr's sons(英語:Jónakr's sons)

Örvar-Oddr(英語:Örvar-Oddr)

Palnatoke(英語:Palnatoke)

朗納爾·洛德布羅克

利里爾(英語:Rerir)

齊格蒙(英語:Sigmund)

西格魯德

斯瓦弗爾拉梅(英語:Svafrlami)

辛菲特利

斯塔爾卡德(英語:Starkad)

健碩者史泰邦(英語:Styrbjörn the Strong)

斯維普達格(英語:Svipdagr)

Völsung(英語:Völsung)

Weohstan(英語:Vésteinn)

其他

阿斯克和恩布拉(英語:Ask and Embla)

歐德姆布拉

貝依拉(英語:Beyla)

包爾

布利

貝格維爾(英語:Byggvir)

Dís(英語:Dís)

英靈戰士

埃爾迪爾(英語:Eldir)

精靈

Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar(英語:Dark elves (Dökkálfar))

Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar(英語:Light elves (Ljósálfar))

Svartálfar(英語:Black elves (Svartálfar))

費瑪芬格(英語:Fimafeng)

芬里爾

加姆

哈提

赫爾

維茲芬、碧爾和修奇

阿薩神族的馬(英語:Horses of the Æsir)

阿爾瓦克和阿爾斯維

勃洛度格霍菲

Falhófnir(英語:Falhófnir)

Gísl(英語:Gísl)

Glad (Norse mythology)(英語:Glaðr)

Glær(英語:Glær)

Glenr(英語:Glenr)

格拉尼

古爾法克西

Gulltoppr(英語:Gulltoppr)

Gyllir(英語:Gyllir)

Hamskerpir and Garðrofa(英語:Hamskerpir and Garðrofa)

霍瓦爾普尼爾

赫利姆法克西和斯基法克西

斯雷普尼爾

斯瓦迪爾法利

Jafnhárr(英語:Jafnhárr)

耶夢加得

Móðguðr(英語:Móðguðr)

埃吉爾和瀾的九個女兒

海姆達爾的九個母親(英語:Nine Mothers of Heimdallr)

納爾弗

尼德霍格

諾倫

兀兒德

薇兒丹蒂

斯庫德

擬人化神

達古

伊里

諾特

Sumarr and Vetr(英語:Sumarr and Vetr)

史基尼爾

斯庫爾

盾女

希亞費與蘿絲克芙

瓦爾基麗雅

列表

沃倫德(英語:Wayland the Smith)

奧爾勞格

雷神之錘地點九個世界(英語:Norse cosmology)

亞爾夫海姆

阿斯加德

約頓海姆

米德加爾德

穆斯貝爾海姆

尼德威阿爾/斯法塔爾夫海姆(英語:Svartálfaheimr)

尼福爾海姆

華納海姆

冥界

冥界

埃琉德尼爾

地獄之橋(英語:Gjallarbrú)

納斯特隆德

Niflhel(英語:Niflhel)

尼達山(英語:Niðafjöll)

河流

冰之波

吉歐爾

伊芬格爾(英語:Ífingr)

Kerlaugar(英語:Kerlaugar)

科爾特姆和烏爾特姆(英語:Körmt and Örmt)

Slidr River(英語:Slidr River)

Vadgelmir(英語:Vadgelmir)

維穆爾

其他地點

亞姆斯瓦提尼爾(英語:Amsvartnir)

Andlang(英語:Andlang)

巴里

彩虹橋

畢爾斯基爾尼爾

布屋瓦拉(英語:Brávellir)

布里米爾(英語:Brimir)

芬撒里爾

弗爾克范格

Fornsigtuna(英語:Fornsigtuna)

Fyrisvellir(英語:Fyrisvellir)

Gálgviðr(英語:Gálgviðr)

甘德維克(英語:Gandvik)

Gastropnir(英語:Gastropnir)

津利

金倫加

格拉茲海姆

Glæsisvellir(英語:Glæsisvellir)

格利特尼爾

格尼巴

Grove of fetters(英語:Grove of fetters)

希敏約格

希恩達爾峰(英語:Hindarfjall)

至高王座

赫尼特比約格山(英語:Hnitbjorg)

赫特密密爾森林(英語:Hoddmímis holt)

艾達華爾

Járnviðr(英語:Járnviðr)

Mímameiðr(英語:Mímameiðr)

Myrkviðr(英語:Myrkviðr)

Munarvágr(英語:Munarvágr)

諾歐通

Okolnir(英語:Okolnir)

塞斯倫姆涅爾(英語:Sessrúmnir)

辛德里(英語:Sindri (mythology))

Singasteinn(英語:Singasteinn)

特隆赫姆(英語:Þrúðheimr)

斯羅德萬

索列姆海姆

厄特加爾

瓦拉斯卡爾夫(英語:Valaskjálf)

瓦爾哈拉

Víðbláinn(英語:Víðbláinn)

維格利德

梵格爾夫

赫瓦格密爾

密米爾之泉

兀兒德之泉

紫杉谷

世界之樹

索克瓦貝克

事件

阿薩–華納戰爭(英語:Æsir–Vanir War)

芬布爾之冬

Hjaðningavíg(英語:Hjaðningavíg)

諸神的黃昏

神器

安德華拉諾特(手飾)

布里希嘉曼(項鍊)

德羅普尼爾(手飾)

艾瑞尼爾(鍋)

加拉爾(號角)

格拉墨(劍)

格萊普尼爾(鎖鏈)

岡格尼爾(槍)

雅恩格利佩爾(鐵手套)

雷瓦汀(?)

妙爾尼爾(鎚)

梅金吉奧德(力量腰帶)

米斯特汀(劍)

納吉爾法(船)

斯基德普拉特尼(船)

提爾鋒(魔劍)

來源

《丹麥人的事跡》

《埃達》

《詩體埃達》

《散文埃達》

如尼石刻

《薩迦》

提爾峰系列(英語:Tyrfing Cycle)

沃爾松格系列(英語:Völsung Cycle)

古諾斯語

正字法(英語:Old Norse orthography)

後世影響(英語:Norse mythology in popular culture)

社會

Blót(英語:Blót)

Félag(英語:Félag)

日耳曼曆法(英語:Germanic calendar)

指稱隱喻(英語:Heiti)

赫爾格(英語:Hörgr)

複合隱喻語

蜜酒廳(英語:Mead hall)

Nīþ(英語:Nīþ)

北歐異教崇拜(英語:Norse rituals)

數字(英語:Numbers in Norse mythology)

日耳曼異教和神話中的聖樹和聖林(英語:Sacred trees and groves in Germanic paganism and mythology)

塞德(英語:Seiðr)

吟唱詩人(英語:Skald)

維京時代

維京人

渥爾娃女巫

盧恩字母

參見

北歐神祇(英語:List of Germanic deities)

北歐巨人

神話中的北歐人物、項目和地點(英語:List of people, items and places in Norse mythology)

日耳曼多神教

日耳曼新異教運動

北歐宗教

斯堪地那維亞

規範控制

AAT: 300019558

GND: 4066083-7

取自「https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=維京人&oldid=81203113」

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维京人 - 维基百科,自由的百科全书

维京人 - 维基百科,自由的百科全书

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1名称解释及形成背景

2历史

3维京时代

4维京人在美洲

5贸易

6维京人的船

7维京战士

开关维京战士子章节

7.1狂战士

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7.3佣兵

7.4瓦兰吉卫士团

8传说

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8.1有角的头盔

8.2其他

9社会

10参见

11注释

12参考资料

13外部链接

开关目录

维京人

141种语言

AfrikaansAlemannischአማርኛAragonésÆngliscالعربيةمصرىঅসমীয়াAsturianuAzərbaycancaتۆرکجهБашҡортсаBasa BaliŽemaitėškaБеларускаяБеларуская (тарашкевіца)БългарскиবাংলাBrezhonegBosanskiБуряадCatalàНохчийнکوردیQırımtatarcaČeštinaЧӑвашлаCymraegDanskDeutschΕλληνικάEnglishEsperantoEspañolEestiEuskaraفارسیSuomiVõroFøroysktFrançaisNordfriiskFurlanFryskGaeilgeGàidhligGalegoAvañe'ẽGaelg客家語/Hak-kâ-ngîעבריתहिन्दीFiji HindiHrvatskiMagyarՀայերենInterlinguaBahasa IndonesiaIlokanoIdoÍslenskaItaliano日本語JawaქართულიҚазақша한국어Къарачай-малкъарKurdîKernowekКыргызчаLatinaLingua Franca NovaLimburgsLigureLietuviųLatviešuMalagasyMāoriМакедонскиമലയാളംМонголमराठीКырык марыBahasa MelayuMirandésမြန်မာဘာသာمازِرونیPlattdüütschNedersaksiesनेपाल भाषाNederlandsNorsk nynorskNorsk bokmålOccitanИронਪੰਜਾਬੀPicardPolskiپنجابیپښتوPortuguêsRumantschRomânăРусскийРусиньскыйSarduSicilianuScotsDavvisámegiellaSrpskohrvatski / српскохрватскиසිංහලSimple EnglishSlovenčinaSlovenščinaShqipСрпски / srpskiSundaSvenskaKiswahiliதமிழ்ТоҷикӣไทยTürkmençeTagalogTürkçeТатарча / tatarçaУкраїнськаاردوOʻzbekcha / ўзбекчаVènetoVepsän kel’Tiếng ViệtWest-VlamsWinaray吴语მარგალურიייִדישVahcuenghBân-lâm-gú粵語

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系列条目斯堪的纳维亚

地理

山脉

半岛

维京时代

维京时代

古诺斯语

瓦良格人

维京人

北欧神话

基督教化(英语:Christianization of Scandinavia)

政治实体

卡尔马联盟

丹麦-挪威

瑞典–挪威

瑞属芬兰

历史

格陵兰

丹麦(法罗群岛)

芬兰(奥兰群岛)

挪威

瑞典

冰岛

其他

北日耳曼语支

泛斯堪的纳维亚主义

北欧理事会

货币联盟/防卫同盟

联赛/使馆/航空公司

查论编

丹麦海员,于11世纪中绘画。

维京人(古诺斯语:víkingr)是诺斯人(意即“北方人”,现在则称为斯堪的纳维亚人)在北欧区域的一支,主要由探险家、狂战士、商人、水手、海盗、巫师和工匠组成一类族群集合体[1][2]。他们来源于现代的挪威中部和南部、丹麦全境以及瑞典中部和南部,在北欧尚未形成“国家”的概念之前就以一个松散的部落联盟的形式存在,并非是统一的国家或民族。

从公元8世纪到11世纪,他们侵扰并殖民了大部分欧洲沿海,如法国的诺曼底、西西里岛及南意大利、拉脱维亚全境、芬兰南部和西部等诸多区域,其中尤以英格兰的丹麦王朝和乌克兰的基辅罗斯最具代表性,甚至影响了英国及俄国后来的历史进程,维京人的足迹还遍及了北极乃至北美洲东部,形成一片广阔的内海疆域。

在欧洲历史上,这一时期被称为“维京时期”,这给欧洲各国都带来了深远的影响。维京人的造船术、建筑学、重型进攻武器、北欧神话体系、针织花纹和卢恩符文占卜的造诣处于欧洲的顶尖位置,带动欧洲其它国家在这些技术上的发展;但是,其防御型武器、狩猎、礼服体系、社交文化、饮酒习俗、文学和奢侈工艺品与同时期的欧洲相比较又为原始野蛮,反而受到欧洲基督教-日耳曼文明的同化,是偏科非常严重的文化族群。在维京人在接受基督教之后,大多数文化逐渐被欧洲人同化,但其宗教、建筑、节日、饮食文化并未完全消失,而是在日常生活中和欧洲人的主流形式融合,虽然丧失了一些自己的原貌,但是其后代——北欧的维京人三国(丹麦、瑞典、挪威)至今仍然保有大量有别于其它基督教欧洲国家的独特文化遗产。

因为维京人的特殊文化遗产,故在现代的电影艺术和电子游戏中经常能发现这类族群的身影。

名称解释及形成背景[编辑]

这段时间北欧的军事、贸易及人口扩张是斯堪的纳维亚、不列颠群岛、西西里、俄罗斯及欧洲其他地区中古时期历史的一个重要元素[3]。在英语中,维京人这个词是从18世纪的传奇故事中引入的,有一种说法认为可能是来源于古代北欧人的古北欧语语言,“vik”意思是“海湾”,“ing”意思是“从……来”,加起来“维京”意思是在海湾中从事某种事,“vikingr”是在海湾中从事这种事的人。另一种说法认为是来源于古英语“wíc”意思是“进行贸易的城市”,因为后来部分维京人定居到不列颠岛,并和当地人进行贸易。他们在公元800到1070年处于统治地位,对海上交通构成威胁。“vikingr”这个词曾经出现在斯堪的纳维亚半岛的古代卢恩文石碑上面,在冰岛的土语中也意味着“海上冒险”。在英语中“wicing”这个词首先出现在6世纪的古代盎格罗-撒克逊的诗歌中,意思就是海盗,但当时英国人并没有将北欧海盗称为维京。在中古英语中“维京”这个词已经消失了,但18世纪时又重新出现在传奇故事中,到了20世纪,“维京”不仅指海盗,意义扩展为指斯堪的纳维亚人,并出现许多新词如:“维京时代”、“维京文化”、“维京殖民地”等。由于后来斯堪的纳维亚人沿着芬兰、俄罗斯平原的河流从事商业活动直到东罗马帝国,并在河流沿岸设立殖民地定居,所以后来将来自斯堪的纳维亚的商人也称作维京,北美洲的斯堪的纳维亚人也被说英语的人称为维京。实际上并不是所有斯堪的纳维亚人都是海盗,他们和其他地区的欧洲人一样也是农民、渔夫和猎人,他们为了防止海盗入侵也成立了舰队,将所有的斯堪的纳维亚人都称为维京会造成混淆。

历史[编辑]

最早见于记载的维京海盗,是记录在《盎格鲁-撒克逊编年史》中的公元789年,一次对英国的袭击:当时这些海盗被英国官员误认是商人,官员要向他们征税,海盗只好杀死官员。第二次是在公元793年。以后200年间,维京不断地侵扰欧洲沿海,沿着河流向上游内地劫掠,曾经控制东欧平原和波罗的海沿岸。据说他们曾远达地中海和里海沿岸。其中的一支渡过波罗的海,并远征诺夫哥罗德,到达基辅和伏尔加保加利亚,并建立基辅罗斯。有些船队远航至里海,前往大伊朗、美索不达米亚和阿拉伯人做生意。而更为著名的一支维京人沿着西欧的大西洋沿岸向南挺进,在欧洲的心脏地带掀起轩然大波。他们大肆劫掠大不列颠岛,并且还向西欧进行了侵扰。维京(Vikings)一词便带有掠夺、杀戮等意思。维京人对于欧洲历史尤其是英格兰和法兰西的历史进程产生过深远影响。

11世纪时的日耳曼人历史学家不来梅的亚当曾在他的著作《汉堡大主教史》第四卷中记载过:“海盗们在西兰岛聚集了大量的黄金,这些海盗被他们自己人称为维京,我们称他们为阿斯考曼尼,他们向丹麦国王纳贡”。

13世纪时,挪威国王哈罗德一世下决心要将这些海盗从苏格兰及附近岛屿清除出去[来源请求],部分维京人逃到冰岛。北欧的传说将他们描绘成无畏的英雄,但到了18世纪的传奇中又把他们描绘成强盗。其他欧洲人认为是斯堪的纳维亚农民业余去做海盗,但斯堪的纳维亚人认为可能这些人只是非法的强盗。

维京时代[编辑]

主条目:维京时代

九世纪初期的欧洲

维京人的航行与领土

北方日耳曼人从公元790年开始扩张,直到公元1066年丹麦人的后裔征服英格兰,一般称之为“维京时代”[4],是欧洲古典时代和中世纪之间的过渡时期。维京人是著名的航海家,他们在昔德兰群岛、法罗群岛、冰岛、格陵兰岛,都设立了殖民地,在10世纪末曾不定期地在美洲纽芬兰居住过。他们不仅是海盗,也同时进行贸易,甚至定居在欧洲沿海和河流两岸。

有记录说公元839年他们曾作为东罗马帝国的雇佣兵而征战北非。他们的殖民地遍布欧洲,包括英格兰的丹麦区、基辅罗斯、法国的诺曼第等等。只是到了维京时代的末期,北欧才出现独立的国家和国王,同时也接纳了基督教,开始进入中世纪。东罗马以及西亚回教诸国等地中海东岸国家因国势较强,维京人在此处的扩张比较受挫,坎尼战役甚至遭受东罗马毁灭性打击而被迫延后在义大利的霸业。而西欧诸国由于长期藩镇割据致使维京人得以大肆扩张,直到中世纪中期西欧各国因为强化王权或都市同盟势力抬头后国势日盛,才比较有能力抵抗维京海盗。随后在汉撒同盟、威尼斯等诸多新兴海军强国打击下,维京人靠抢掠而创立的霸业方才逐渐消亡。

维京人在美洲[编辑]

主条目:文兰 (纽芬兰)和维京人殖民北美

维京人莱夫·埃里克松早在哥伦布发现新大陆前五百多年就已登陆了美洲。据推测,他们是在到达格陵兰岛后,再向西行,才抵达今天加拿大的纽芬兰及巴芬岛。他们在那里发现了许多有用的物资,包括木材、葡萄、毛皮等,不过他们在美洲大陆只待了大约十年之久,就离开了这个物产丰盛的大陆,而原因可能是因为美洲原住民。

考古学之前发现,加拿大纽芬兰的兰塞奥兹牧草地上,有8座木造建筑遗址,是维京人曾驻足此地[5],但发现当时的科学研究能力有限,无法得知维京人确切抵达的日期[6]。2021年10月,荷兰格罗宁根大学学者在科学期刊《自然》发布学术研究结果[7],木造遗址是维京人在西元1021年所建。巧合的是,建筑时间与科学证实日期,恰巧相距10个世纪。

该大学在研究中以科学方式,利用宇宙射线在树木年轮中形成的放射性特殊碳讯号,得到公元1021年维京人在纽芬兰建造木屋的证据。研究者发现公元992年曾有大规模太阳风暴,而遗址中的木材经科技验证:在该年太阳风暴造成特殊年轮后,继续形成有29圈的年轮,代表遗址中的该批木材是在1021年被砍伐。此研究克服先前对于年份估计的不精确性,为欧洲人登陆美洲的历史奠定了标竿,对于后续有关维京的历史研究,例如:知识转移、遗传资讯、动物迁徙和病理学交换,有很大的意义[8]。

贸易[编辑]

维京贸易商用的秤和砝码,用在测量银,有时也拿来测量金,来自锡格蒂纳箱(英语:Sigtuna box)

维京人和当时已知的世界建立了广泛的贸易网络,对欧洲及斯堪的纳维亚半岛的经济发展有一定程度的影响[9][10]。

维京世界不太使用金钱,只有像里伯及赫德比(英语:Hedeby)之类的贸易中心才会使用,其经济称为金银块(英语:bullion)经济。当时交易最常用到的金属是银,有时也会使用金作为交易媒介。银是用银棒或是锭(英语:ingots)的方式流通,也有用首饰或是珠宝的形式流通。贸易商会带著小的秤,可以精准的量测重量,因此虽然没有一般的货币,但可能已有非常精准的贸易系统。

维京人的船[编辑]

主条目:维京长船

维京人的船是维京文化中重要的组成部分,可以说维京人的一切都与他们的船有密切联系。维京船制造的材料主要取自高大笔直的橡树。维京船分为战船和货船两类。战船较轻,船窄,灵活轻便,又很耐风浪;而货船的船身又高又宽,船体也很重,在波涛汹涌的大海中载重航行时可保持稳定。两类船都有通常所说的弯曲船首,用一整块完整的橡木精雕细刻而成。

维京长船由于吃水浅,速度快,转向灵活,十分适合远征异地时突袭式的掠夺活动。但由于维京战船甲板是露天的,因此无法挡风遮雨。风雨和巨浪仍然使维京人又冷又湿,冻死人和夜晚被巨浪卷下海淹死都是很常见的事。由此可见,维京人的这种穿越大海的征服行动无疑必须具有无比的勇气和坚定的毅力,在取得胜利之前首先要忍受极大的痛苦。因此维京人这个名词从中世纪强烈的贬义到了今天又带有勇气的含义[11]。

维京战士[编辑]

维京人的军事上存在一些罕见于其他民族的兵种。[12][需要较佳来源]

狂战士[编辑]

狂战士带著打死不退的精神与敌人厮杀,他们自认有“奥丁的庇护”而勇往直前无所畏惧。其形象常与狼、熊等元素挂上关联,如其英文“berserker”即为北欧语的字根“ber”(熊)加上“sekr”(上衣)组成。

狂战士随著基督教在斯堪地那维亚的扩张而有所衰退。教会视其为“狂乱的心灵”,并将强盗、野蛮等形象加诸在狂战士身上,使其被排挤出主流社会。此外,法律也将其“狂暴”视为罪刑,并施以监禁、流放等惩罚,这些种种因素使得狂战士逐渐淡出了历史。

骑马战士[编辑]

传统上维京人的战斗配置中并没有骑兵,因为马匹在斯堪地那维亚为罕见动物,地形破碎的斯堪地那维亚出产的马也不是优良的战马,所以配有坐骑的人只为了彰显自己的身分地位,通常是国王、伯爵、指挥官等战场上的重要人物。

维京时代的后期,丹麦王室将骑兵编入了亲卫队当中,这可能是模仿法兰克人或诺曼人的骑士制度,但马只是交通工具,且维京人不谙马术与马战,皆以下马作战为主。

佣兵[编辑]

维京佣兵团盛行于十世纪至十一世纪初,他们受雇于法兰克人、盎格鲁-萨克逊人、西班牙人、东欧各民族等势力。雇用者除了给予金钱报酬之外,为了避免佣兵团见利忘义而倒戈,也可能给予土地等等无法带走的奖励,使得佣兵无法轻易背弃他们之间的雇约。

瓦兰吉卫士团[编辑]

瓦兰吉卫队为拜占庭的菁英亲卫队(为维京佣兵团的一种)。领军者则仍是拜占庭人。

拜占庭帝国和罗斯公国在西元860年签订了和约,使得拜占庭帝国可在公国内雇用士兵作为自己的部队,而这个被雇用的士兵包含了当时在基辅流浪的维京佣兵。西元911年时,约有七百名“瓦兰吉人”于拜占庭从军。十世纪时,巴西尔二世将此兵团扩充至六千人左右,并用其东征西讨。之后因战死、退役、预算收缩等因素,卫士团数量逐渐缩编至三千人以下。

瓦兰吉卫队的标准配备为一顶头盔、一件锁子甲,并手持一把双手巨斧。

传说[编辑]

有角的头盔[编辑]

Magnus Barelegs的维京节,其中的头盔上没有角

传说中维京人戴着有角的头盔。除了两三个仪式中用的的头盔外(上面可能是象征乌鸦、蛇或牛角的突起物),没有证据说明维京人会戴角盔(英语:Horned helmet)[13]。正式、近距离的维京战斗(可能是在屏蔽墙或是在舰岛上)中,戴著角盔很麻烦,甚至会造成战友的危险。

历史学家相信维京战士不会戴角盔,不过不确定是否会在其他仪式使用。有关维京战士戴角盔的误解可能是来自19世纪的Geatish社群(英语:Geatish Society)爱好者,Geatish社群在1811年于斯德哥尔摩成立,提倡用北欧神话作为一些高雅艺术的主题。这种有关维京人戴有角的头盔的印象也可能是来自理查·华格纳1876年的剧作《尼伯龙根的指环》[14]。

维京人常会用有翼的头盔和古典时代的服装来加以描绘,特别是那些北欧诸神的服装,其目的是将维京人和他们的神话连在一起,这是欧洲文化中常见的理想化。

后来民族浪漫主义创造的迷思将维京人和二千多年前的北欧铜器时代(英语:Nordic Bronze Age)混为一谈。北欧铜器时代的岩刻上有出现过角盔,也有在考古的物品中发现过(例如布胡斯及Veksø(英语:Veksø)的头盔),可能是用在礼仪上的用途[15]。

像《Hägar the Horrible(英语:Hägar the Horrible)》和《北海小英雄》等卡通,以及明尼苏达维京人和坎培拉奇袭队(英语:Canberra Raiders)的图案中,仍沿用了维京人戴着角盔这个被误解的概念,可能也造成此一迷思的传播[16]。

维京人的头盔是硬皮革制的圆锥形物体,在正规部队中会木头及金属加以强化。铁质且有面具的头盔是首领用的,是以中瑞典以往在文德尔(英语:Vendel)的头盔为基础。唯一真正的维京人头盔是在挪威的Gjermundbu发现的,是铁制的头盔,年代可以追溯到第十世纪[17]。

其他[编辑]

传说中维京人浑身肮脏,蓬乱的长头发和大胡子混在一起,用人的头盖骨作酒碗。实际古代北欧语言中skal意思是酒碗,被不正确地翻译成拉丁语的“头盖骨”;当时维京人喜好清洁在历史上是有记载的。

传说维京人身材是很高大。有现代学者对此进行过研究,研究指出当时的维京人身高大约是168.4公分至174公分。与现代人比起来,维京人的身材不算是很高,但跟当时的人相比,维京人的确是比较高。

维京人很干净,非常在乎他们的外表和良好的卫生习惯。与普遍的看法相反,他们经常洗澡,远远超过中世纪后期的人口。星期六的古挪威语单词是Laugardagr,即洗涤日。907年,一群瑞典维京人在黑海与拜占庭帝国之间签订和平条约的要求之一是斯堪的纳维亚人应该可“随心所欲”地进入拜占庭人的公共浴池。

社会[编辑]

维京人的社会分为三个社会经济阶层;奴隶、农场工人(自由农民)和伯爵。

奴隶是社会中最底层的阶级,是社会的重要组成部分,负责执行日常任务和进行大型建筑专案,但他们也从事贸易和经济活动。奴隶还被用作农场的工人和伯爵的大家庭仆人和劳工,他们被用来建造防御工事、坡道、运河、坟墓、道路和类似的艰苦劳动。根据帝国迁徙的记载,奴隶被鄙视和看不起,新的奴隶是由现有奴隶的儿女获得的,或者是通过在其他土地上掠夺获得的,奴隶或出售给穆斯林,以换取阿拉伯白银。

自由农民。他们拥有自己的农场、土地和牛群,他们每天从事农业工作,耕田,挤奶,建造房屋和马车,但他们也经常有奴隶来维持生计。

伯爵是维京社会的贵族。他们很富有,拥有大农场和巨大的长屋,有马和许多奴隶。奴隶或仆人负责大部分日常工作,而伯爵则从事行政、政治、狩猎、拜访其他伯爵或出国探险。当伯爵去世并被埋葬时,他的私人奴隶有时会被杀死并与他一起埋葬,正如一些考古发掘所显示的那样。

参见[编辑]

维京长船

维京雄狮

著名维京人列表

以维京人为背景的作品列表

原始诺尔斯语

如尼石刻

注释[编辑]

^ Roesdahl, Else. The Vikings. Penguin Books. 1998: 9-22 [2014-07-13]. ISBN 9780140252828. (原始内容存档于2014-07-18). 

^ Viking (people). Encyclopedia Brittanica. [2014-07-13]. (原始内容存档于2014-10-06). 

^ Brink, Stefan. Who were the Vikings?. Brink, Stefan; Price, Neil (编). The Viking World. Routledge. 2008: 4–10. ISBN 9780415692625. 

^ Peter Sawyer, The Viking Expansion, The Cambridge History of Scandinavia, Issue 1 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) (Knut Helle, ed., 2003), p.105.

^ Wallace, B. L. in Contact, Continuity, and Collapse: the Norse Colonization of the North Atlantic (ed. Barrett, J.) 207–238 (Brepols, 2003).

^ Dee, M. W. & Kuitems, M. Duration of activity inestimable due to imprecision of the data. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 116, 22907 (2019).

^ Kuitems, M., Wallace, B.L., Lindsay, C. et al. Evidence for European presence in the Americas in AD 1021. Nature (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03972-8

^ Mühlemann, B. et al. Diverse variola virus (smallpox) strains were widespread in northern Europe in the Viking Age. Science 369, 6502 (2020).

^ Gareth Williams: Viking Money (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) BBC History

^ Graham­-Campbell, James: The Viking World, Frances Lincoln Ltd, London (2013). Maps of trade routes.

^ 白海军《海上大征服》第十二章,东方中心出版社

^ 维京人传奇 第四章, 枫树林出版社

^ Kahn, Charles. World History: Societies of the Past. Portage & Main Press. 2005: 9 [March 18, 2011]. ISBN 978-1-55379-045-7. 

^ Frank, F. The Invention of the Viking Horned Helmet. International Scandinavian and Medieval Studies in Memory of Gerd Wolfgang Weber. 2000. (原始内容存档于2014-04-13). 

^ Did Vikings really wear horns on their helmets? (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), The Straight Dope, 7 December 2004. Retrieved 14 November 2007.

^ Did Vikings wear horned helmets?. The Economist. www.economist.com. [10 April 2014]. (原始内容存档于2014-08-30). 

^ The Gjermundbu Find - The Chieftain Warrior. [10 April 2014]. (原始内容存档于2014-02-15). 

参考资料[编辑]

Brink, Stefan. Who were the Vikings?. Brink, Stefan; Price, Neil (编). The Viking World. Routledge. 2008: 4–10. ISBN 9780415692625. 

Roesdahl, Else. The Vikings. Penguin Books. 1998 [2014-07-13]. ISBN 9780140252828. (原始内容存档于2014-07-18). 

Konstam, Angus. 特殊兵種. Viking Warrior Operations Manual: The life, equipment, weapons and fighting tactics of the Vikings. Haynes Publishing UK. 2018: 122-127. ISBN 9781785211737. 

外部链接[编辑]

查看维基词典中的词条“Viking”。

维基共享资源上的相关多媒体资源:维京人

维基文库中相关的原始文献:Northmen

Vikings—View videos at The History Channel

Copenhagen-Portal – The Danish Vikings (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)

BBC: History of Vikings (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)

Encyclopædia Britannica: Viking, or Norseman, or Northman, or Varangian (people) (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)

Borg Viking museum, Norway

Ibn Fadlan and the Rusiyyah, by James E. Montgomery, with full translation of Ibn Fadlan

Wawm, Andrew, The Viking Revival (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) - BBC Online, Ancient History in Depth (updated 17 February 2011)

历史文献

Lofotr 维京博物馆

奥斯陆的维京船博物馆

维京船

维京人 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)

维京介绍 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)

维京船只介绍

维京师 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)

查论编北欧神话神祇(英语:List of Germanic deities)和其他人物阿萨神族(男性)

巴德尔

布拉基

得林

凡赛堤

海姆达尔

赫尔莫德

霍德尔

海尼尔

Ítreksjóð(英语:Ítreksjóð)

洛德

洛基

玛尼

Meili(英语:Meili)

密米尔

曼尼与摩迪

奥丁

奥德

索尔

提尔

乌勒尔

瓦利

维达

威利和菲(英语:Vili and Vé)

威利

阿萨神族(女性)

维兹芬、碧尔和修奇

埃尔

弗丽嘉

芙拉

葛冯

葛德

盖娜

赫琳

伊登

Ilmr(英语:Ilmr)

Þorgerðr Hölgabrúðr and Irpa(英语:Þorgerðr Hölgabrúðr and Irpa)

洛芬

南娜

Njörun(英语:Njörun)

琳达

萨迦和索克瓦贝克(英语:Sága and Sökkvabekkr)

萨迦

希芙

西格恩

修芬

丝卡蒂

斯洛特拉

苏尔

席恩

斯露德

华尔

瓦尔

华纳神族

弗雷亚

弗雷

Ingunar-Freyr(英语:Ingunar-Freyr)

英格维(英语:Yngvi)

赫诺丝和格尔塞蜜

赫诺丝(英语:Hnoss)

格尔塞蜜(英语:Gersemi)

古尔维格

克瓦希尔

尼奥尔德

Sister-wife of Njörðr(英语:Sister-wife of Njörðr)

那瑟斯

巨人(英语:Jötunn)(列表、霜巨人、山巨人、火巨人)

埃吉尔

Alvaldi(英语:Alvaldi)

安格尔博达

奥波达(英语:Aurboða)

巴乌吉

毕利

贝格尔米尔

贝斯特拉

博尔颂

贝莱斯特(英语:Býleistr)

艾格瑟

法布提

Fjölvar(英语:Fjölvar)

Fjörgyn and Fjörgynn(英语:Fjörgyn and Fjörgynn)

佛恩尤特

刚(英语:Gangr)

盖尔罗德

吉尔林

格嘉普和格蕾普(英语:Gjálp and Greip)

格莉德

格萝德

盖密尔

Harðgreipr(英语:Harðgreipr)

赫尔布林迪(英语:Helblindi)

何乐雷格(英语:Helreginn)

弗琉莉兹(英语:Hljod)

赫拉斯瓦尔格

Hrímgerðr(英语:Hrímgerðr)

Hrímgrímnir(英语:Hrímgrímnir)

Hrímnir(英语:Hrímnir)

Hroðr(英语:Hroðr)

赫朗格尼尔

赫列姆

希密尔

希尔罗金

伊迪(英语:Iði)

Im(英语:Im (巨人))

雅恩莎撒

娇德

劳菲

莱恩(英语:Leikn)

里特(英语:Litr)

洛吉(英语:Logi)

Mögþrasir(英语:Mögþrasir)

纳尔弗(英语:Narfi)

史基密米尔(英语:Sökkmímir)

史尔特尔

苏图恩

夏基

索克

Þrívaldi(英语:Þrívaldi)

瑟洛特格尔密尔(英语:Þrúðgelmir)

索列姆

乌特迦·洛奇

瓦夫苏鲁特尼尔

瓦利

Víðblindi(英语:Víðblindi)

Vosud(英语:Vosud)

Vörnir(英语:Vörnir)

伊米尔

侏儒

阿尔维斯

安德瓦里

Billingr(英语:Billingr)

布罗克(英语:Brokkr)

戴恩(英语:Dáinn (Norse dwarf))

杜林

Dúrnir(英语:Dúrnir)

杜华林(英语:Dvalin)

伊特理(英语:Eitri)

法夫纳

Fjalar and Galar(英语:法亚拉和戈拉)

甘道夫

赫瑞德玛

里特(英语:Litr)

摩索尼尔

诺尔德里、苏德里、奥斯特里和维斯特里

欧特

雷金

伊瓦第之子(英语:Sons of Ivaldi)

英雄(英语:List of Germanic heroes)

Egil(英语:Egil, brother of Volund)

亚伦格林

Bödvar Bjarki(英语:Bödvar Bjarki)

Björn Ironside(英语:Björn Járnsíða)

Guðmundr(英语:Guðmundr)

海伯德(英语:Hagbard)

黑克(英语:Haki)

赫德雷克(英语:Heidrek)

Helgi Haddingjaskati(英语:Helgi Haddingjaskati)

Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar(英语:Helgi Hjörvarðsson)

海尔吉·匈丁斯巴纳(英语:Helgi Hundingsbane)

赫尔薇尔(英语:Hervor)

耶尔玛和英博格(英语:Hjalmar and Ingeborg)

Hlöd(英语:Hlöðr)

Hothbrodd(英语:Höðbroddr)

Hrólfr Kraki(英语:Hrólfr Kraki)

英乔德(英语:Ingeld)

Jonakr's sons(英语:Jónakr's sons)

Örvar-Oddr(英语:Örvar-Oddr)

Palnatoke(英语:Palnatoke)

朗纳尔·洛德布罗克

利里尔(英语:Rerir)

齐格蒙(英语:Sigmund)

西格鲁德

斯瓦弗尔拉梅(英语:Svafrlami)

辛菲特利

斯塔尔卡德(英语:Starkad)

健硕者史泰邦(英语:Styrbjörn the Strong)

斯维普达格(英语:Svipdagr)

Völsung(英语:Völsung)

Weohstan(英语:Vésteinn)

其他

阿斯克和恩布拉(英语:Ask and Embla)

欧德姆布拉

贝依拉(英语:Beyla)

包尔

布利

贝格维尔(英语:Byggvir)

Dís(英语:Dís)

英灵战士

埃尔迪尔(英语:Eldir)

精灵

Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar(英语:Dark elves (Dökkálfar))

Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar(英语:Light elves (Ljósálfar))

Svartálfar(英语:Black elves (Svartálfar))

费玛芬格(英语:Fimafeng)

芬里尔

加尔姆

哈提

赫尔

维兹芬、碧尔和修奇

阿萨神族的马(英语:Horses of the Æsir)

阿尔瓦克和阿尔斯维

勃洛度格霍菲

Falhófnir(英语:Falhófnir)

Gísl(英语:Gísl)

Glad (Norse mythology)(英语:Glaðr)

Glær(英语:Glær)

Glenr(英语:Glenr)

格拉尼

古尔法克西

Gulltoppr(英语:Gulltoppr)

Gyllir(英语:Gyllir)

Hamskerpir and Garðrofa(英语:Hamskerpir and Garðrofa)

霍瓦尔普尼尔

赫利姆法克西和斯基法克西

斯雷普尼尔

斯瓦迪尔法利

Jafnhárr(英语:Jafnhárr)

耶梦加得

Móðguðr(英语:Móðguðr)

埃吉尔和澜的九个女儿

海姆达尔的九个母亲(英语:Nine Mothers of Heimdallr)

纳尔弗

尼德霍格

诺伦

兀儿德

薇儿丹蒂

斯库尔德

拟人化神

达古

伊里

诺特

Sumarr and Vetr(英语:Sumarr and Vetr)

史基尼尔

斯库尔

盾女

希亚费与萝丝克芙

瓦尔基丽雅

列表

沃伦德(英语:Wayland the Smith)

奥尔劳格

雷神之锤地点九个世界(英语:Norse cosmology)

亚尔夫海姆

阿斯加德

约顿海姆

米德加尔德

穆斯帕尔海姆

尼德威阿尔/斯法塔尔夫海姆(英语:Svartálfaheimr)

尼弗尔海姆

华纳海姆

冥界

冥界

埃琉德尼尔

地狱之桥(英语:Gjallarbrú)

纳斯特隆德

Niflhel(英语:Niflhel)

尼达山(英语:Niðafjöll)

河流

冰之波

吉欧尔

伊芬格尔(英语:Ífingr)

Kerlaugar(英语:Kerlaugar)

科尔特姆和乌尔特姆(英语:Körmt and Örmt)

Slidr River(英语:Slidr River)

Vadgelmir(英语:Vadgelmir)

维穆尔

其他地点

亚姆斯瓦提尼尔(英语:Amsvartnir)

Andlang(英语:Andlang)

巴里

彩虹桥

毕尔斯基尔尼尔

布屋瓦拉(英语:Brávellir)

布里米尔(英语:Brimir)

芬撒里尔

弗尔克范格

Fornsigtuna(英语:Fornsigtuna)

Fyrisvellir(英语:Fyrisvellir)

Gálgviðr(英语:Gálgviðr)

甘德维克(英语:Gandvik)

Gastropnir(英语:Gastropnir)

津利

金伦加

格拉兹海姆

Glæsisvellir(英语:Glæsisvellir)

格利特尼尔

格尼巴

Grove of fetters(英语:Grove of fetters)

希敏约格

希恩达尔峰(英语:Hindarfjall)

至高王座

赫尼特比约格山(英语:Hnitbjorg)

赫特密密尔森林(英语:Hoddmímis holt)

艾达华尔

Járnviðr(英语:Járnviðr)

Mímameiðr(英语:Mímameiðr)

Myrkviðr(英语:Myrkviðr)

Munarvágr(英语:Munarvágr)

诺欧通

Okolnir(英语:Okolnir)

塞斯伦姆涅尔(英语:Sessrúmnir)

辛德里(英语:Sindri (mythology))

Singasteinn(英语:Singasteinn)

特隆赫姆(英语:Þrúðheimr)

斯罗德万

索列姆海姆

厄特加尔

瓦拉斯卡尔夫(英语:Valaskjálf)

瓦尔哈拉

Víðbláinn(英语:Víðbláinn)

维格利德

梵格尔夫

赫瓦格密尔

密米尔之泉

兀儿德之泉

紫杉谷

世界之树

索克瓦贝克

事件

阿萨–华纳战争(英语:Æsir–Vanir War)

芬布尔之冬

Hjaðningavíg(英语:Hjaðningavíg)

诸神的黄昏

神器

安德华拉诺特(手饰)

布里希嘉曼(项链)

德罗普尼尔(手饰)

艾瑞尼尔(锅)

加拉尔(号角)

格拉墨(剑)

格莱普尼尔(锁链)

冈格尼尔(枪)

雅恩格利佩尔(铁手套)

雷瓦汀(?)

妙尔尼尔(锤)

梅金吉奥德(力量腰带)

米斯特汀(剑)

纳吉尔法(船)

斯基德普拉特尼(船)

提尔锋(魔剑)

来源

《丹麦人的事迹》

《埃达》

《诗体埃达》

《散文埃达》

如尼石刻

《萨迦》

提尔峰系列(英语:Tyrfing Cycle)

沃尔松格系列(英语:Völsung Cycle)

古诺斯语

正字法(英语:Old Norse orthography)

后世影响(英语:Norse mythology in popular culture)

社会

Blót(英语:Blót)

Félag(英语:Félag)

日耳曼历法(英语:Germanic calendar)

指称隐喻(英语:Heiti)

赫尔格(英语:Hörgr)

复合隐喻语

蜜酒厅(英语:Mead hall)

Nīþ(英语:Nīþ)

北欧异教崇拜(英语:Norse rituals)

数字(英语:Numbers in Norse mythology)

日耳曼异教和神话中的圣树和圣林(英语:Sacred trees and groves in Germanic paganism and mythology)

塞德(英语:Seiðr)

吟唱诗人(英语:Skald)

维京时代

维京人

渥尔娃女巫

卢恩字母

参见

北欧神祇(英语:List of Germanic deities)

北欧巨人

神话中的北欧人物、项目和地点(英语:List of people, items and places in Norse mythology)

日耳曼多神教

日耳曼新异教运动

北欧宗教

斯堪的纳维亚

规范控制

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GND: 4066083-7

取自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=維京人&oldid=81203113”

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Viking中文(繁體)翻譯:劍橋詞典

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Viking 在英語-中文(繁體)詞典中的翻譯

Vikingnoun [ C ] uk

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a person belonging to a race of Scandinavian people who travelled by sea and attacked parts of northern and southern Europe between the 8th and the 11th centuries, often staying to live in places they travelled to

北歐海盜,維金人(斯堪的納維亞人的一支,在8至11世紀間曾劫掠北歐和南歐)

(Viking在劍橋英語-中文(繁體)詞典的翻譯 © Cambridge University Press)

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Viking的翻譯

中文(簡體)

北欧海盗,维金人(斯堪的纳维亚人的一支,在8至11世纪间曾劫掠北欧和南欧)…

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vikingo, vikinga…

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vignette

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Viking这个词到底是什么意思?——《维京》(序) - 哔哩哔哩

ng这个词到底是什么意思?——《维京》(序) - 哔哩哔哩 Viking这个词到底是什么意思?——《维京》(序)蓝鲸泽维尔

关注专栏/Viking这个词到底是什么意思?——《维京》(序)Viking这个词到底是什么意思?——《维京》(序)

2022年03月19日 03:16--浏览 ·

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蓝鲸泽维尔粉丝:2.2万文章:125

关注根据1913年出版的 The Vikings 翻译, 作者为 Allen Mawer维京(Viking) 这个词来源于古诺斯(Norse)语 vik,意思是湾(海湾、河湾、峡湾),或者是经常出没在这种地方的人。这个词比实际的维京时代还要古老,它是盎格鲁-撒克逊语wicing的一个词形,有些作者认为它指的是挪威南部Vik地区的人,也就是所谓的峡湾人。不过早期的盎格鲁-撒克逊语并没有这种词形变化。在公元9-10世纪,这个词开始更多用来专指那些离开他们斯堪的纳维亚的家乡到其他欧洲主要国家进行劫掠的战士们。这是一种狭义的用法,严格意义上讲,也是维京这个词的唯一含义。但是当它用在“维京文明”、“维京时代”、“维京运动”、“维京影响”这些词上时,是一种更广义的用法——在描绘历史上某一特定时期的文明、活动和影响力时,它所指的是所有斯堪的纳维亚人。如果这时还适用它的狭义,就像把维多利亚时代说成是加勒比海盗(Buccaneers)时代一样,容易产生误会。本书适用的是这个词的广义。劫掠和骚扰只是维京人行为的一个方面,而它在我们心中成为对维京运动最大的印象纯属偶然。直到上世纪后半段,我们对于维京运动的了解,还几乎全是来自于中世纪的拉丁语编年史,它们都是在修道院和类似的学校里写成的,那里的人对维京劫掠者的毁灭性行动实在是感受得太多了,很自然认为维京人比海盗高不到哪里去,并且不知疲倦地描写这些人的残酷和暴虐。直到最近这五十年,我们才修正了对维京文明的看法,并对它在欧洲历史上的地位有了更公正的认识。这种改变主要来源于两方面。首先,是斯堪的纳维亚文学对我们来说已不再是天书奇谈。我们这个时代拥有三种当地的权威资料:(1)散文式的萨迦(Saga)和Saxo Gramaticus的《丹麦史(Historia Danica)》,(2)古冰岛诗集《埃达(Edda)》中的诗歌和(3)北欧吟游诗人(Skald)留下的诗篇。散文式萨迦和《丹麦史》的存在要晚于维京时代,但包含很多有价值的材料。更古老一些的《埃达》中的主要诗篇发源于维京时代,对于斯堪的纳维亚人的宗教和神话、流传到今的英雄故事和他们对人生的基本观念,它们能提供给我们的信息是极其珍贵的。而北欧吟游诗人的诗篇,某种意义上讲,是对那个时代最有价值的权威历史资料。吟游诗人或宫廷诗人是隶属于王室和领主贵族的随从,分享他们的冒险,赞颂他们的胜利,为他们的逝世创作挽歌,而且他们的作品基本上都是和这些历史事件同时代的产物。第二个也是更重要的一个原因,是近半个世纪以来考古学科技的快速发展,和近百年来考古学家们丰富的发现给我们提供了大量的实在证据,这远比我们从萨迦等其他地方留意到的零星和碎片化的信息要令人满意得多。在它们的帮助下我们得以重塑维京时代的物质文明形象。由此形成的一切我们会在后面详述,但大致上讲,我们可以说,它们和“维京”这个词的一般含义大相径庭。本文为我原创本文禁止转载或摘编

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